新加坡合同法 The Law of Contract--Singapore（中英文对照）
TABLE OF CONTENTS 目录
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION 导论
SECTION 2 OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE要约和承诺
SECTION 3 CONSIDERATION 对价
SECTION 4 INTENTION TO CREATE LEGAL RELATIONS设立法律关系的意旨
SECTION 5 TERMS OF THE CONTRACT合同条款
SECTION 6 CAPACITY TO CONTRACT缔约能力
SECTION 7 PRIVITY OF CONTRACT合同的相对性
SECTION 8 DISCHARGE OF CONTRACT合同之解除
SECTION 9 MISTAKE误解
SECTION 10 MISREPRESENTATION虚假陈述
SECTION 11 DURESS, UNDUE INFLUENCE & UNCONSCIONABILITY胁迫，不当影响及显失公平
SECTION 12 ILLEGALITY AND PUBLIC POLICY非法性与公共政策
SECTION 13 JUDICIAL REMEDIES FOR BREACH OF CONTRACT违约的司法救济
1.1 Contract law in Singapore is largely based on the common law of contract in England. Unlike its neighbours Malaysia and Brunei, following Independence in 1965, Singapore´s Parliament made no attempt to codify Singapore´s law of contract. Accordingly, much of the law of contract in Singapore remains in the form of judge-made rules. In some circumstances, these judge-made rules have been modified by specific statutes.
新加坡的合同法基本上是以英国关于合同的普通法为范式而构建的。与它的邻居马来西亚和文莱不同的是，新加坡在1965年独立之后并没有试图编纂新加坡的合同法，因此新加坡的合同法仍保持判例法规则的模式。在某些情况下，判例法的规则已经被特定的成文法所修改。
1.2 Many of these statutes are English in origin. To begin with, 13 English commercial statutes have been incorporated as part of the Statutes of the Republic of Singapore by virtue of s 4 of the Application of English Law Act (Cap 7A, 1993 Rev Ed). These are listed in Part II of the First Schedule of this Act. Other statutes, eg the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act (Cap 53B, 2002 Rev Ed), are modelled upon（仿效） English statutes. There are also other areas where statutory development based on non-English models has taken place, eg the Consumer Protection (Fair Trading) Act (Cap 52A, 2004 Rev Ed) (which was largely drawn from fair trading legislation enacted in Alberta and Sasketchewan).
许多此类立法起源于英国。首先来说，有13个英国商事法律根据《英国法律适用法》（Application of English Law Act) 第四节（Cap 7A, 1993年修订）的规定直接成为新加坡共和国的立法。这些立法罗列在该法的第二部分的第一附表里。其他立法，如《合同第三方权利法》（Contracts( Rights of Third Parties) Act）(Cap 53B, 2002 修订)，系模仿英国立法制定的。在某些领域也有立法采用非英国模式的情形，比如《消费者保护（公平交易）法》(Consumer Protection (Fair Trading) Act)（Cap 52A, 2004年修订）。该法大致上参照[加拿大]阿尔伯塔与萨卡其万两省的公平交易法制定。
1.3 The rules developed in the Singapore courts do, nevertheless, bear a very close resemblance to those developed under English common law. Indeed, where there is no Singapore authority specifically on point, it will usually be assumed that the position will, in the first instance, be no different from that in England.
即使是新加坡的法庭本身所发展出的规则也同英国普通法的同类规则有非常大的相似性。如果关于某个问题新加坡本身没有权威规则时，人们就会理所当然地首先假定新加坡的立场同英国法的立场没有什么区别.
SECTION 2 OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE要约和承诺
2.1 A contract is essentially an agreement between two or more parties, the terms of which affect their respective rights and obligations which are enforceable at law. Whether the parties have reached agreement, or a meeting of the minds, is objectively ascertained from the facts. The concepts of offer and acceptance provide in many, albeit not all, cases the starting point for analysing whether agreement has been reached.
合同在本质上是双方或者多方之间的协议，该协议条款涉及到当事人各自的权利义务并且具有法律约束力。至于当事人之间是否达成协议，或合意（consensus ad idem）, 应通过对事实的客观分析而确定。在大多数–但并非所有的情况下，要约与承诺的概念是分析当事人是否达成协议的起点。
Definition定义
3.1 A promise contained in an agreement is not enforceable unless it is supported by consideration or it is made in a written document made under seal. Consideration is something of value (as defined by the law), requested for by the party making the promise (the `promisor´) and provided by the party who receives it (the `promisee´), in exchange for the promise that the promisee is seeking to enforce. Thus, it could consist of either some benefit received by the promisor, or some detriment to the promisee. This benefit/detriment may consist of a counter promise or a completed act.
一项允诺，如果不为对价支持或者不由书面盖印作出，则不具法律执行力。对价是（法律界定的）某种价值，为提出允诺的一方（“允诺人”）所要求，并由接受允诺的一方（“受允诺人”）所提供以用来交换对前项允诺的执行。故此，它可以是允诺人收到的某种利益，或者受允诺人承受的某种损害。这种利益/损害可以表现为对待允诺或者已完成的行为。
Reciprocity互惠
3.2 The idea of reciprocity that underlies the requirement for consideration means that there has to be some causal relation between the consideration and the promise itself. Thus, consideration cannot consist of something that was already done before the promise was made. However, the courts do not always adopt a strict chronological approach to the analysis.
体现于对价要求之中的是互惠关系这一原则，它要求对价和允诺之间有某种原因关系。因此，对价不能是允诺作出之前已经完成的事情。但是，法院并不总是严格地忠实于这种以时间先后为准的推论方式–参见Pao On v Lau Yiu Long [1980] AC 614, 该判例所确立的原则已经被新加坡上诉法院在Sim Tony v Lim Ah Ghee t/a Phil Real Estate & Building Services ([1995] 2 SLR 466) 一案中明确采用.
Sufficiency充足
3.3 Whether the consideration provided is sufficient is a question of law, and the court is not, as a general rule, concerned with whether the value of the consideration is commensurate with the value of the promise. The performance of, or the promise to perform, an existing public duty imposed on the promisee does not, without more, constitute sufficient consideration in law to support the promisor´s promise. The performance of an existing obligation that is owed contractually to the promisor is capable of being sufficient consideration, if such performance confers a real and practical benefit on the promisor. If the promisee performs or promises to perform an existing contractual obligation that is owed to a third party, the promisee will have furnished sufficient consideration at law to support a promise given in exchange.
对价是否充足是个法律上的问题。作为一般原则，法庭并不关心对价的价值是否与允诺的价值相称。如无更多东西，受允诺人履行或者承诺履行因公职而负担的即存责任在法律上不能成为允诺人作出的允诺的充足对价。向允诺人履行既存的合同责任可以成为充足对价，但条件是该履约行为可以为允诺人带来真正实际的利益。如果受允诺人履行或允诺履行既存合同项下对第三人的义务，则认为受允诺人依法提供了支持允诺的充足对价。
Promissory Estoppel禁止反言
3.4 Where the doctrine of promissory estoppel applies, a promise may be binding notwithstanding that it is not supported by consideration. This doctrine applies where a party to a contract makes an unequivocal promise, whether by words or conduct, that he or she will not insist on his or her strict legal rights under the contract, and the other party acts, and thereby alters his or her position, in reliance on the promise. The party making the promise cannot seek to enforce those rights if it would be inequitable to do so, although such rights may be reasserted upon the promisor giving reasonable notice. The doctrine prevents the enforcement of existing rights, but does not create new causes of action.
即使没有对价支持，一项允诺也可能因为禁止反言原则的适用而具有拘束力。禁止反言原则适用于下列情况，即如果合同的一方当事人通过语言或行为做出了清楚明白的允诺来表明他或她不会严格坚持自己在合同项下的法律权利，而另一方本着对这个许诺的信赖而采取行动改变了自己的状况。如果因此可能导致不公平结果，作出许诺的一方不得再寻求执行合同权利，尽管经由许诺人做出合理通知后这些权利可以被重新主张。
SECTION 4 INTENTION TO CREATE LEGAL RELATIONS设立法律关系的意旨
Contractual Intention合同意旨
4.1 In the absence of contractual intention, an agreement, even if supported by consideration, cannot be enforced. Whether the parties to an agreement intended to create legally binding relations between them is a question determined by an objective assessment of the relevant facts.
如缺乏合同意旨，一个协议即使有对价支持，也不能被执行。协议的各当事方是否意图在彼此之间建立有法律约束力的关系应该通过对相关事实的客观评估而确定。
Commercial Arrangements商业安排
4.2 In the case of agreements in a commercial context, the courts will generally presume that the parties intended to be legally bound. However, the presumption can be displaced where the parties expressly declare the contrary intention. This is often done through the use of honour clauses, letters of intent, memoranda of understanding and other similar devices, although the ultimate conclusion would depend, not on the label attached to the document, but on an objective assessment of the language used and on all the attendant facts.
对商业情境中达成的协议，法庭一般都会推定当事人具有受法律约束力的意旨。然而这个推定可以被当事人明确宣示的相反意图所推翻。君子协定、意向书、备忘录和其他类似手段都可以表现这种意图。尽管如此，关于[当事人意图的] 最终结论仍有赖于对他们所用的语言和所有相关事实的客观评估，而不是文件的标签。
Social Arrangements社会安排
4.3 The parties in domestic or social arrangements are generally presumed not to intend legal consequences.
当事人在家庭或社会交往中所作出的安排一般被推定为不具有产生法律后果的意图。
SECTION 5 TERMS OF THE CONTRACT合同条款
Express Terms明示条款
5.1 The rights and obligations of contracting parties are determined by first, ascertaining the terms of the contract, and secondly, interpreting those terms. In ascertaining the terms of a contract, it is sometimes necessary, especially where the contract has not been reduced to writing, to decide whether a particular statement is a contractual term or a mere representation. Whether a statement is contractual or not depends on the intention of the parties, objectively ascertained, and is a question of fact. In ascertaining the parties´ intention, the courts take into account a number of factors including the stage of the transaction at which the statement was made, the importance which the representee attached to the statement and the relative knowledge or skill of the parties vis-à-vis the subject matter of the statement.
合同缔约方的权利义务首先应通过认定合同的条款来确定，其次通过对条款的解释来确定。在确定合同条款是有时有必要认定某一个表述到底是合同条款还是仅仅是一般陈述，尤其是当合同尚未见诸书面时。某项表述是否具有合同性质有赖于客观认定的当事方的意图，而这是一个事实问题。在确定当事人的意图时，法庭要考虑诸多因素，包括表述作出时交易所进行到的阶段，受表述人对该表述所赋予的重要性，以及当事人各自具有的相对于表述标的有关知识和技能。
5.2 Once the terms of a contract have been determined, the court applies an objective test in construing or interpreting the meaning of these terms. What is significant in this determination therefore is not the sense attributed by either party to the words used, but how a reasonable person would understand those terms. In this regard, Singapore courts have consistently emphasised the importance of the factual matrix within which the contract was made, as this would assist in determining how a reasonable man would have understood the language of the document.
合同条款一经确定，法庭会适用一个客观标准解释条款的含义。在这种情况下，重要的不是某个当事方对合同用语所赋予的含义，而是一个通情达理的人如何理解这些条款。在这方面，新加坡的法庭一贯地注重当事人订立合同时所处的事实网络，因为这能帮助确定一个通情达理的人会如何理解合同语言。
5.3 Where the parties have reduced their agreement into writing, whether a particular statement (oral or written) forms part of the actual contract depends on the application of the parol evidence rule. In Singapore, this common law rule and its main exceptions are codified in s 93 and s 94 of the Evidence Act (Cap 97, 1997 Rev Ed). Section 93 provides that where `the terms of a contract...have been reduced ...to the form of a document..., no evidence shall be given in proof of the terms of such contract ...except the document itself´. Thus, no evidence of any oral agreement or statement may be admitted in evidence to contradict, vary, add to, or subtract from the terms of the written contract. However, secondary evidence is admissible if it falls within one of the exceptions to this general rule found in the proviso to s 94. Some controversy remains as to whether s 94 is an exhaustive statement of all exceptions to the rule, or whether other common law exceptions not explicitly covered in s 94 continue to be applicable.
如当事人已将合同表诸书面，无论是口头还是书面作出的某个特定表述是否是合同的组成部分有赖于依口头证据规则做出的判断。这一普通法规则及其例外由《证据法》（Cap 97, 1997 年修正）第93节和94节来规范。第93节规定，“如合同条款…已经被书写为…文件形式…, 则除文件本身外，其他证据不能用来证明合同条款。”因此，任何口头协议或表述都不能被作为证据去推翻、改变、增加或者减少书面合同的条款。然而，次要证据如果根据《证据法》第94节属于口头证据规则的例外，就可以被接受。但是现在对于第94节是否囊括了所有的例外以及在此之外普通法上的未被第94节明确提到的例外是否可继续适用还是很有争议的。
5.4 It should, however, be noted that the scope of s 93 and s 94 has been circumscribed by Parliament in certain circumstances.
应该提到的事，第93条和94条的适用范围在某些情况下被国会有所限制。见第 章与《消费者保护（公平交易）法》（Cap 52A, 2004 修正）第17条有关的消费者保护规则。
Implied Terms默示条款
5.5 In addition to those expressly agreed terms, the court may sometimes imply terms into the contract.
在上述明确表示的条款之外，法庭有时还可以为合同添加默示条款。
5.6 Generally, any term to be implied must not contradict any express term of the contract.
总的来说，任何默示条款均不得与合同的明示条款相抵触。
5.7 Where a term is implied to fill a gap in the contract so as to give effect to the presumed intention of the parties, the term is implied in fact and depends on a consideration of the language of the contract as well as the surrounding circumstances. A term will be implied only if it is so necessary that both parties must have intended its inclusion in the contract. The fact that it would be reasonable to include the term is not sufficient for the implication, as the courts will not re-write the contract for the parties.
如果某个条款被默示出来的目的是为了填补合同的空白以体现推定出来的当事人的意图，这个条款即属于事实上的默示条款，其内容之确定要考虑合同的用语以及周遭情况。只有当情况如此必须而当事人必然曾经考虑将某个条款纳进合同时，该条款才会被默示进来。仅仅因为如果将某个条款包括进合同是合乎情理的这个事实还不足以使它成为默示条款，因为法庭不会为当事人重写合同。
5.8 Terms may also be implied because this is required statutorily, or on public policy considerations. The terms implied by the Sale of Goods Act (Cap 393, 1994 Rev Ed) (eg s 12(1) - that the seller of goods has a right to sell the goods) provide examples of the former type of implied terms. As for the latter, whilst there has been no specific authority on the point, it is not inconceivable that Singapore courts, like their English counterparts, may imply `default´ terms into specific classes of contracts to give effect to policies that define the contractual relationships that arise out of those contracts.
默示条款的成立也可以是因为成文法的要求，或者是出于公共政策的考虑。《货物买卖法》（Cap 393, 1994修正版）提供了前一类范例（例如第12节（1）规定的买方有权出售货物）。至于后一类，虽然现在尚无具体的权威依据，但如果新加坡法院像他们的英国同业那样将一些“缺省”条款默示进合同以保持公共政策对合同关系的限制，这也并非不可想象的。
Classification of Terms合同条款的分类
5.9 The terms of a contract may be classified into conditions, warranties or intermediate (or innominate) terms. Proper classification is important as it determines whether the contract may be discharged or terminated for breach [as to which see Paragraphs 11 to 12 below].
合同条款可以分为条件 (conditions)，担保 (warranties)，和中间（或无名）条款(intermediate/innominate terms)。条款的恰当分类很重要，因为这将决定合同是否已被履行或者因为违约而解除（见下文11 和 12）。
5.10 The parties may expressly stipulate in the contract how a particular term is to be classed. This is not, however, conclusive unless the parties are found to have intended the technical meaning of the classifying words used. In the absence of express stipulation, the courts will look objectively at the language of the contract to determine how, in light of the surrounding circumstances, the parties intended a particular term to be classed. There are also instances where statutes may stipulate whether certain kinds of terms are to be treated as conditions or warranties, in the absence of any specific designation by the contracting parties.
当事人可以在合同中明确约定某个条款的性质分类，但除非他们所用的分类语言能清楚明确地表明其意图，否则分类不属最后决定性的。如无明确的合同规定，法庭会客观地审视合同的语言，以期确定当事人在当时情况下可能如何决定某个条款的分类。另有些情况下，如果当事人没有明确条款的性质，成文法也会直接规定某些条款应被当作条件或担保。
Exception Clauses免责条款
5.11 Exception clauses that seek to exclude or limit a contracting party´s liability are commonly, but not exclusively, found in standard form agreements. The law in Singapore relating to such clauses is essentially based on English law. The English Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977, which either invalidates an exception clause or limits the efficacy of such terms by imposing a requirement of reasonableness, has been re-enacted in Singapore as the Unfair Contract Terms Act (as Cap 396, 1994 Rev Ed).
试图排除或限制当时一方责任的免责条款在格式合同中使用很普遍，但其使用范围不限于此。新加坡有关免责条款的法律本质上是基于英国法的。1977年的英国《不公平合同条款法》通过一个“合理性要求”来使免责条款无效或者限制其功效。这个法律被全盘照搬为新加坡的《不公平条款法》（Cap 396, 1994年修正）。
Incorporation纳入
5.12 Whether an exception clause will have its intended effect depends on a number of factors. The threshold requirement is that the clause must have been incorporated into the contract. There are generally three ways in which such incorporation may occur. Where a party has signed a contract which contains an exception clause, the signatory is bound by the clause, even if he or she had not read or was unaware of the clause. An exception clause may also be incorporated, in the absence of a signed contract, if the party seeking to rely on the clause took reasonably sufficient steps to draw the other party´s attention to the existence of the clause. The determination of this issue is heavily dependent on the facts of the particular case. Finally, exception clauses may be incorporated because there has been a consistent and regular course of dealing between the parties on terms that incorporate the exception clause. Even if no steps were taken to incorporate the clause in a particular contract between such parties, it may have been validly incorporated by the parties´ prior course of dealing.
一个免责条款是否能产生其意图的效果有赖于众多因素。基本的标准是该条款必然已经被纳入合同。这种纳入一般采取如下三种方式。如一方已经在包含免责条款的合同上签字，则即使签字人没有读过或者不知晓该条款，他也受条款约束。设使不存在签字的合同，如果试图利用免责条款的一方采取足够合理的措施提请另一方注意条款的存在，该条款就可被认为是并入了合同。这种情形之确定非常依赖个案的具体事实。最后，免责条款之被纳入合同也可能是因为当事人之间的经常一贯的交易方式是将免责条款包括在内的。就算当事人没有采取任何措施将免责条款纳入合同，他们先前的交易习惯也可将此类条款有效纳入。
Construction合同解释
5.13 The next consideration is one of construction (or interpretation). This is necessary to determine if the liability, which the relevant party is seeking to exclude or restrict, falls within the proper scope of the clause. Here, the courts adopt the contra proferentum rule of construction, and will construe exception clauses strictly against parties seeking to rely on them. Nevertheless, the Singapore courts appear to construe clauses which seek to limit liability more liberally than those which seek to completely exclude liability.
下一个问题是合同的解释，这对确定合同责任是否被某个条款涵盖是很有必要的，而有关当事方总是试图排除或限制这种责任。在此，法庭总是采取“不利于起草条款的一方”（contra proferentum）的解释原则，且对试图依赖免责条款一方作严格解释。尽管如此，新加坡法庭表现出的倾向是对那些限制责任的条款的解释总是比那些完全免责的条款的解释来的宽松一些。
Unfair Contract Terms Act不公平合同条款
5.14 Finally, the limits placed by the Unfair Contracts Terms Act (Cap 396, 1994 Rev Ed) (the `UCTA´) on the operation and efficacy of exceptions clauses must be considered. It should be noted that the UCTA generally applies only to terms that affect liability for breach of obligations that arise in the course of a business or from the occupation of business premises. It also gives protection to persons who are dealing as consumers. Under the UCTA, exception clauses are either rendered wholly ineffective, or are ineffective unless shown to satisfy the requirement of reasonableness. Terms that attempt to exclude or restrict a party´s liability for death or personal injury resulting from that party´s negligence are rendered wholly ineffective by the UCTA, while terms that seek to exclude or restrict liability for negligence resulting in loss or damage other than death or personal injury, and those that attempt to exclude or restrict contractual liability, are subject to the requirement of reasonableness. The reasonableness of the exception clause is evaluated as at the time at which the contract was made. The actual consequences of the breach are therefore, in theory at least, immaterial.
最后，《不公平合同条款法》（UCTA）对免责条款的功效的限制也应予以考虑。应注意到UCTA总的来说只是适用于那些涉及到因商业活动或在商业场所所产生的合同责任违约的条款。它也对消费者提供保护。根据UCTA，免责条款或者完全无效，或者因不满足合理性标准（requirement of reasonableness）而失效。试图排除或限制因为疏忽而导致的死亡或人身伤害的责任的条款完全无效，而那些排除或限制因为疏误所导致的非人身性的财产灭失或损坏的责任的条款，以及那些试图排除或限制合同义务的条款，应受合理性标准约束。免责条款是否合理要依合同订立时的时间来判断。因此，至少在理论上，违约的实际后果可能并非很重要。
SECTION 6 CAPACITY TO CONTRACT缔约能力
Minors未成年人
6.1 Under Singapore common law, a minor is a person under the age of 21. The validity of contracts entered into by minors is governed by the common law, as modified by the Minors´ Contracts Act (Cap 389, 1994 Rev Ed).
依新加坡的普通法，21岁以下为未成年人。根据修订后的《未成年人合同法》（Cap 389, 1994年修订）未成年人订立的合同由普通法管辖。
Contracts with Minors与未成年人订约
6.2 As a general rule, contracts are not enforceable against minors. However, where a minor has been supplied with necessaries (ie goods or services suitable for the maintenance of the station in life of the minor concerned: see also s 3(3), Sale of Goods Act (Cap 393, 1999 Rev Ed)), the minor must pay for them. Contracts of service which are, on the whole, for the minor´s benefit are also valid. The minor is also bound by certain types of contracts (ie contracts concerning land or shares in companies, partnership contracts and marriage settlements), unless the minor repudiates the contract before attaining majority at age 21 or within a reasonable time thereafter.
总的原则是未成年人订立的合同对他没有执行力。然而，如果未成年人购买的是生活必需品（例如适于维持他的生活条件的货物或服务；另参见《货物买卖法》第三条（3）），他就必须付款。服务合同（contract of services）如整体上是为了未成年人的利益，亦属有效。未成年人也受到某些其它类型合同的约束，例如涉及到土地或者公司股份、合伙或者离婚调解的合同，除非未成年人在21岁以前或再次之后一段合理期间内否认合同。
Minors´ Contracts Act 《未成年人合同法》
6.3 Under s 2 of the Minors´ Contracts Act, a guarantee given in respect of a minor´s contract, which may not be enforceable against the minor, is nevertheless enforceable against the guarantor. Section 3(1) of the Minors´ Contracts Act empowers the court to order restitution against the minor if it is just and equitable to do so.
根据《未成年人合同法》第2条，未成年人订立的合同虽不能针对他而执行，但他人对该合同作出的担保却对该担保人有执行力。该法第3（1）条授权法庭判令未成年人返还财产，如果法庭认为这样作是符合公平公正原则。
Mental Incapacity and Drunkards心智不健全者和醉酒者
6.4 A contract entered into by a person of unsound mind is valid, unless it can be shown that that person was incapable of understanding what he or she was doing and the other party knew or ought reasonably to have known of the disability. In this case, the contract may be avoided at the option of the mentally unsound person (assisted by a court-sanctioned representative where necessary). The same principle applies in the case of inebriated persons. Under s 3(2) of the Sale of Goods Act, persons incapacitated mentally or by drunkenness are required to pay a reasonable price for necessaries supplied.
心智不正常的人订立的合同也是有效的，除非能够证明该人在订立合同时并没有能力理解自己的所做所为且另一方当事人知晓或应该合理地知晓这种情形。心智不健全的人在这种情况下有权撤销合同（如有必要该人应得到法庭认可的代理人协助）。醉酒的人订立的合同已适用同样的原则。按照《货物买卖法》第3(2) 条，心智不健全的人或醉酒的人必须为生活必需品支付合理价格。
Corporations公司
6.5 Subject to any written law and to any limits contained in its constitution, a company has full capacity to undertake any business, do any act or enter into any transaction (s 23 - Companies Act, Cap 50, 1994 Rev Ed). Where there are restrictions placed on the capacity of a company and the company acts beyond its capacity, s 25 of the Companies Act validates such ultra vires transactions if they would otherwise be valid and binding. Contracts purportedly entered into by a company prior to its incorporation may be ratified and adopted by the company after its formation (s 41 - Companies Act).
只要不逾越任何成文法或其本身章程的规定，一家公司具有从事任何业务的全部能力，可以为任何行为和进行任何交易（见《公司法》(Cap 50, 1994修订）第23条）。即算对公司行为有限制而公司超出能力范围行事，如果所施行为在此之外均有效和有拘束力，《公司法》第25条也任何这种行为。公司在成立之前订立的合同可在成立之后被公司批准和采纳。
6.6 A limited liability partnership is also a body corporate under Singapore law - see Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2005 (Act No 5 of 2005). It may, in its own name: sue and be sued in its own name; acquire, own, hold and develop property; hold a common seal; and may do and suffer such other acts and things as any body corporate may lawfully do and suffer - see s 5(1). Section 5(2) also extends s 41 of the Companies Act to apply to a limited liability partnership.
按照新加坡法律有限责任合伙（limited liability partnership）也是一种公司实体（参见《有限责任合伙法2005》）。它可以以自己的名义提起诉讼或成为被告；取得、拥有、占有和发展财产；设公司印章；以及任何可以进行和负担任何其他公司实体可以合法进行和负担的行为（见第5（1）条）。第5(2) 条亦将《公司法》第41条适用于有限责任合伙。
SECTION 7 PRIVITY OF CONTRACT合同的相对性
Third party Enforcement of Contractual Rights Generally not Permitted
一般不允许第三方执行合同权利
7.1 As a general proposition, only persons who are party (ie `privy´) to a contract may enforce rights or obligations arising from that contract. This is sometimes referred to as the `privity rule.´
总的立场是，只有合同的当事人（“相对人”）才能执行合同项下的权利和义务。这在有时候被称为“合同的相对性规则”。
7.2 A third party who is not privy to a contract is generally not allowed to bring any legal action in his or her own name for breach of contract against a contracting party who fails to perform his or her contractual obligations, even if such failure of performance has caused the third party to suffer a loss.
第三方不是合同的相对人，因而一般不能针对合同的当事方的未能履约的行为提起法律诉讼，即使第三方因为此种履行不能而招致损失。
When is Someone Party or Privy to a Contract? 何时成为合同当事人或相对方
7.3 There is no clear definition as to when a person is/is not privy to a contract. Generally, a party who is an offeror or offeree will be privy to the contract. However, it seems that merely being mentioned in the contract is not enough.
关于某个人何时是或者不是相对人没有清晰的法律定义。一般而言，要约人或受要约人会成为合同的相对人。但是，仅仅是在合同中被提到名字尚不足以使该人成为相对人。
7.4 It is, nevertheless, possible to have a multilateral contract where there are multiple offerees (one or more of whom accept the offer on behalf of the others) or where there are multiple offerors (one or more of whom make the offer on behalf of the others). In either case, each offeree or offeror is a joint party to the contract and the privity rule will not apply to them.
但也可能有多边合同的情形，这是因为有着多个受要约人（其中某个或多个代表其他人接受要约）或者多个要约人（其中某个或者多个代表其他人发出要约）的存在。上述任何情形下，每个受要约人人或者要约人都是合同的连带当事方，而合同的相对性规则不适用于他们。
Non-statutory Exceptions to the Privity Rule相对性原则的非立法例外
7.5 The privity rule is not absolute. It is subject to many exceptions. Apart from the possibility of a multilateral or multi-party contract (mentioned above), some other exceptions can be found in the law relating to: (a) agency; (b) trusts; or (c) land (in relation to covenants which `run´ with the land or lease). For an in depth discussion of these other legal techniques to circumvent the privity rule, please see Chapters 15 and 1
合同的相对性原则并非绝对，而是有着很多例外。除上述提到的多边或者多方合同之外，下列方面的法律也能找到各种例外：（a）代理；（b）信托；和（c）土地（关系到虽土地或租约转移的合同债务）。关于其他法律对相对性规则的限制方面更深入的探讨见第十五和十八章。
Statutory Exceptions to the Privity Rule相对性原则的立法例外
7.6 There are also statutory exceptions. Most of these are only applicable to specific and narrowly defined cases. Two examples of such statutes include: (a) the Bills of Exchange Act (Cap 23, 1985 Rev Ed) [see Chapter 22 on Banking Law]; and (b) the Bills of Lading Act (Cap 384, 1994 Rev Ed) [see Chapter 25 on Shipping Law]. Of more general application, the Singapore Parliament enacted the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act (Cap 53B, 2002 Rev Ed) in 2001.
还有一些立法规定的例外，但其大多数适用于非常具体的和狭窄界定的情况。举两个例子：（a）《汇票法》（Cap 23，1985修订）[见第x章关于银行法]；和（b）《提单法》(Cap 384, 1994修订) [见第x章关于海运法]。关于更一般性的适用，见新加坡议会在2001年制定的《合同项下第三方权利法》（Cap 53B, 2002 修订）。
Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act合同项下第三方权利法
7.7 Section 1 provides that the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act has no retrospective effect - it cannot apply to any contract formed before 1 January 2002. Section 1 also provides that the Act does not apply to any contracts which were formed on or after 1 January 2002, but before 1 July 2002, unless the contracting parties expressly provided in their contract for it to do so. Contracts formed on or after 1 July 2002 are always subject to the Act.
《合同项下第三方权利法》第一条规定该法无溯及既往的效力，即它不能适用于2002年一月一日之前成立的合同。该法规定其自身也不适用于2002年一月一日或之后、2002年七月一日之前成立的合同，除非当事人在他们的合同中明确规定适用该法。2002年七月一日之后成立的合同总是受该法制约。
7.8 Where the Act applies, it gives a third party a statutory right to enforce a term of a contract against a party who is in breach of his or her obligations under the contract (the `promisor´), even though even though the third party is a volunteer who has not provided any contractual consideration - see s 2(5).
当本法适用时，它赋予一个第三方以法定权利，使得后者可以就某个合同条款对违反其合同义务的当事人（“允诺人”）予以执行，即使第三方是个没有提供任何合同对价的第三者。见第2(5)条。
7.9 This may occur if either: (a) the contract expressly provides that the third party may enforce a term of the contract in his or her own right - s 2(1)(a); or (b) the contract, `purports to confer a benefit on the third party´ - s 2(1)(b). However, s 2(1)(b) is qualified: a third party will not be granted the direct statutory right of suit in the absence of an express provision permitting him or her to do so, `if, on a proper construction of the contract, it appears that the parties did not intend the term to be enforceable by the third party.´ - s 2(2).
这种情况之发生是因为：（a）合同明确规定第三方自身有权执行某个合同条款–见第2(1)(a)条；或者，（b）合同“意图对第三方授予利益”- 见第2(1)(b)。但是第2(1)(b)是受到限制的：如无明确合同规定，且根据对合同的恰当解释显示出当事人无意给与第三方法定的执行权利，第三方即没有直接的法定权利提起诉讼。- 见第2（2）条。
7.10 This statutory right of enforcement is not just limited to cases where the promisor is under an obligation to act to confer a positive benefit on the third party. `Negative´ benefits, such as the benefit of a term excluding or limiting the third party´s legal liabilities to the promisor, may also be enforced -s 2(5).
但法定的执行权利并不限于允诺人有义务采取行动授予第三方积极利益的情形。“消极”利益，例如免除或限制第三方对允诺人之法律责任的利益，也可以得到执行。- 见第2（5）条。
7.11 The third party´s statutory right of enforcement against the promisor is qualified in a number of ways. First, the third party´s statutory right of recovery may be qualified by a defence or set-off which the promisor would have been able to assert vis-à-vis the other party to the contract (the `promisee´) - s 4. Second, any sum to be recovered by the third party pursuant to the Act may be reduced to take into account sums recovered by the promisee from the promisor in respect of the promisor´s breach - s 6.
第三方针对允诺人执行合同的法定权利受到各种限制。首先，第三方取得利益的法定权利受到允诺人对合同别的当事方（“受允诺人）所可以提起的抗辩权或者抵销权的限制。- 见第4条。第二，考虑及受允诺人因为允诺人违约而追复到的赔偿数额，第三方根据该法所可以获得的金钱数额会相应会减少。- 见第6条。
7.12 Once third party rights are created under the Act, certain restrictions are imposed on the ability of the parties to the contract to vary or rescind their contract if this would extinguish or alter the third party´s rights under the Act - s 3.
根据本法第三方权利一旦设定，合同当事人改变或撤销合同的能力如果会消除或改变第三方根据本法享受的权利，就受到某些限制。- 见第3条。
7.13 Though wider in its scope than many of the other legal techniques for circumventing privity, the Act is not of universal application. Section 7 of the Act sets out a number of situations where the Act does not apply. Excluded cases include: (a) contracts on a bill of exchange, promissory note or other negotiable instrument; (b) limited liability partnership agreements as defined under the Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2005 (Act 5 of 2005); (c) the statutory contract binding a company and its members under s39 of the Companies Act (Cap 50, 1994 Rev Ed); (d) third party enforcement of any term of an employment contract against an employee; and (e) third party enforcement of any term (apart from any exclusion or limitation of liability for the benefit of the third party) in a contract for carriage of goods by sea, or a contract for the carriage of goods or cargo by rail, road or air, if such contract is subject to certain international transport conventions.
本法虽然比其他法律技术更能限制合同相对性规则，但也并没有普遍适用力。法规的第7条列出了数种本法不能涵盖的情形。排除的情形包括：（a）关于汇票、期票或其他流通票据的合同；（b）〉《有限责任合伙法》所规定的有限责任合伙合同；（c）根据《公司法》第39条约束公司及其股东的法定合同；（4）第三方根据雇佣合同针对雇员执行合同条款；以及（e）第三方对海上货物运输合同或者适用某些国际公约的铁路、陆路或空运合同中任何条款的执行，但为第三方利益的排除或限制责任的条款除外。
SECTION 8 DISCHARGE OF CONTRACT合同之解除
Discharge by Performance因履约而解除
1 If all the contractual obligations as defined by the terms of the contract are fully performed, the contract is brought to an end or `discharged´ by performance. In theory, such performance must be precise. However, trivial defects in performance may be ignored as being negligible or `de minimis.´ In addition, where full performance is only possible with the cooperation of the other party (as is almost invariably the case with obligations of payment or delivery), tender of performance in circumstances where the other party refuses to accept it is generally deemed to be equivalent to full performance so as to discharge the contract.
如果合同条款规定的所有合同义务都得以全部履行，则合同归于结束或称因履行而“解除”。理论上讲，履行必须是适当的。然而履行中的细小瑕疵可被视为可忽略的或“琐碎之事”。此外，如果全面履行只有在另一方当事人的配合下才为可能（如付款或交付义务之履行必然需要对方配合），在对方拒绝受领的情况下，履行就绪可被视同为全面履行，合同因此而解除。
Non- or Defective Performance不履行或不适当履行
2 In the event that a contractual obligation is not performed or is performed defectively in a non-trivial fashion, Singapore law provides for a variety of legal responses and remedies, depending on the nature of the failure of performance.
如合同义务未被履行或者履行有并非琐碎的瑕疵，新加坡法律规定了众多法律上的反应和救济方式，其适用视违约的性质而定。
Lawful Excuses for Breach of Contract违法合同的法定免责事由
3 If the failure of performance is not subject to any lawful excuse, the contract is said to be `breached.´ In this context, `lawful excuses´ may take the following forms.
如果未能履行不可归于任何法定的免责事由，合同可谓被“违反”。在这一背景下，“法定免责事由”可表现为如下形式：
Discharge by Agreement因合同落空而解除
4 First, just as parties are free to agree to bind themselves to a contract, they are free to negotiate with each other to release themselves from the obligations of that contract. Such agreement may well have been built into the original contract, for example, where parties agree that their original agreement be terminable by giving notice of termination, or upon lapse of a specified period of time. Alternatively, contracting parties may release themselves from the obligations of the original contract by entering into a subsequent contract of release. Where each contractual party is still subject to contractual obligations which have yet to be performed, the mutual release of their outstanding obligations is generally effective under Singapore law without the need for any further formalities or any other consideration. However, where the party who is owed the obligation in question does not have any outstanding obligations under the original contract, the party seeking to be released from that obligation will have to provide some form of valuable consideration in exchange for the release. In the alternative, the release must be executed under seal to be effective.
第一，正如当事方可自由协商为他们自己订立具有约束力的合同，他们也可通过彼此协商解除自己的合同义务。此类协议可能已被结合进原来的合同，例如当事人在原合同中同意，合同可以经事先给与通知而终止，或者经过一段确定的时间而终止。此外，当事人也可以订立补充协议解除他们的合同义务。在各当事方都有未履行的合同义务之时，按照新加坡法律，通过一纸协议解除他们的现有合同义务总的来说是有效的，当事人不需采取任何其他特别形式或提供任何对价。但是，如果一方已没有合同项下的义务须履行而另一方则对他负有义务，希望被解除履行责任的一方必须提供某种有价值的对价以换取义务之解除。作为代替手段，解除协议可以采取盖印的形式以取得效力。
5 Secondly, it may be that the obligation which has not been performed is conditional upon the prior occurrence of certain specified events: these may be external events, or some contractually specified counter-performance by the other party to the contract.
第二，情形也可能是未被履行的合同义务是以某些规定的事件之发生为条件的：这些可能是外在事件，或合同规定的另一方的对待履行等。
6 Thirdly, the parties may contractually provide for non-performance following from certain events to be excused so as not to amount to a breach, for example, in the form of a `force majeure´ clause. At the very least, such a clause will hold all parties innocent of liability for non-performance following the specified force majeure event. More detailed force majeure clauses may also make provision for issues such as the return and refund of advance payments, reimbursements for expenses incurred in preparation of the performance of the contract, and so forth. Such provisions will generally be given effect by Singapore law.
第三，当事人可以在合同中约定，因某些事件发生后的不履行不视为违约行为, 从而使其得到免责，比如合同中的“不可抗力”条款。在规定的不可抗力事件发生后，这个条款最少可以使对不履行没有过错的当事方免于责任。更为详细的不可抗力条款还会规定预付款的退还、为准备履行合同所招致的费用之补偿，等等。新加坡法律总体上认可这些条款的效力。
Discharge by Frustration因合同落空而解除
7 Fourthly, where the reason for the failure of performance lies in events beyond the control of the contracting parties and which neither party could have reasonably foreseen, the contract is said to be `frustrated´. In such cases, there are statutory rules which set out the extent to which advance payments made before the frustrating event intervened may be refunded and work done in preparation of the performance of the contract in advance of the frustrating event may be reimbursed - see Frustrated Contracts Act (Cap 115, 1985 Rev Ed) s 2(2) and s 2(4) respectively. Section 2(3) of the Frustrated Contracts Act also empowers the Singapore courts to make valuations of any non-money benefits which may have been conferred by one contracting party on another, prior to the frustrating event, and to order the recipient of those benefits to pay for such value received.
第四，如果未能履约是出于超出当事方控制的事由，且任何一方当事人对此都不可能合理预见，即可认为存在“合同落空”。见Glahe International Expo AG v ACS Computer Pte Ltd and another appeal [1999] 2 SLR 620 at 629。对这种情形，新加坡法律有强制性的成文规则，规定落空事件发生前提交的预付款应予返还，以及此前为准备履约所招致的费用应予补偿。见《落空合同法》（Cap 115, 1985修订）第2(2)和第2(4)条。《落空合同法》第2(3)条也授权法院对在落空事件发生之前一方当事人给与另一方的非金钱利益的价值进行估量，并裁令利益收受者提供相应报酬。
Effects of a Breach of Contract违约后果
8 In the absence of a lawful excuse, a breach of contract has two significant effects.
如无法定免责事由，违约将会产生两个显著后果。
Contract Damages合同损害赔偿
9 First, if the breach of contract by one contracting party (the `party-in-breach´) causes loss to the other (the `aggrieved party´), the party-in-breach may be ordered by the courts to compensate the aggrieved party in money damages for those losses, in lieu of the primary obligations left unperformed under the contract. However, contractual damages (which are compensatory and not punitive in nature), is not the only judicial remedy available. Other types of remedies may be available in lieu, or sometimes, in addition to damages, depending on the nature of the obligation which has been breached. [See Section 13 below].
第一，如果一个当事方（“违约方”）的违约行为给对方（“受损方”）造成损失，违约方应被法庭判令向受损方就其损失作出金钱赔偿，而不是继续履行原合同的基本义务。但是，合同损害赔偿（属于赔偿性的而非惩罚性的）并非唯一的司法救济方式。根据违约的性质，其他类型的救济可以替代或者补充损害赔偿。见下文第13节。
Right to Elect to Discharge for Breach解除合同之选择权
10 Second, the breach may give the aggrieved party the right to bring the contract to an end, ie to discharge the contract for breach. In this connection, it is useful to distinguish actual breaches of contract (wherein the breach occurs at the actual time of performance as specified by the contract) from anticipatory breaches of contract (wherein the breach is said to occur in advance of the contractually stipulated time of performance).
第二，违约可使受损方结束合同，如因违约而解除合同。在这方面应该区分实际违约（指违约发生在合同规定的实际履行期间）与预期违约（指违约发生在合同规定的履行期限之前）。
Actual Breach Giving Rise to Right of Discharge实际违约给与合同解除权
11 In the case of an actual breach of contract, the aggrieved party may elect to discharge the contract for breach if the contractual term which has been breached is: (a) a `condition´; or (b) an `innominate term,´ the breach of which deprives the aggrieved party of substantially the whole of the benefit of the contract. In such a case, the aggrieved party may choose to discharge the contract for breach.
发生实际违约，如下列合同条款已被违反，受损方可以选择解除合同：（a）一个“条件”；或者（b）一个“中间条款”，对该条款的违反已经实际整体上剥夺了受损方在合同项下的利益。在这种情况下，受损方可以选择因违约而解除合同。
12 The aggrieved party has no such power of election if the contractual term which has actually been breached is: (a) a `warranty´; or (b) an `innominate term,´ the breach of which does not deprive the aggrieved party of substantially the whole of the benefit of the contract. In such a case, the contract will persist despite the breach (unless the contract is brought to an end by some other event).
如系下列条款实际上被违反，受损方无权选择解除合同：（a）一项“担保”；（b）一个“中间条款”，对该条款的违反并未实际整体上剥夺受损方在合同项下的利益。这种情况下，尽管存在违约，合同仍将继续存在（除非其他事件导致合同终止）。
13 For details as to how a contract term may be categorised as a `condition,´ a `warranty´ or an `innominate term,´ see Paragraphs 5.9 to 5.10 above.
关于合同条款如何划分为“条件”，“担保”或“中间条款”的细节，见前文第5.9节和5.10节。
Discharge by Actual Breach因实际违约而解除
14 If the aggrieved party is entitled to discharge the contract and elects to do so, the contract is brought to an end prospectively. That is, the contract ceases to bind the parties to the contract from the time the election is effectively communicated to the other contracting parties. Such communication may take the form of words, acts, or even (in exceptional cases) silence. Prior to that time, such an election may be withdrawn. Following an effective discharge, the parties are released from all outstanding contractual obligations.
如果受损方有权解除合同且选择这样做，合同即告结束。换言之，当选择已经有效通知到另一方当事人时，合同即停止对各当事人有约束力。通知的形式可以是语言，行为，（特殊情形下甚至可以是）缄默。在此之前，选择可以撤回。合同有效解除后，当事方不再受任何合同义务约束。
Affirmation of Contract Following an Actual Breach实际违约后对合同的确认
15 The aggrieved party may choose, however, not to discharge the contract. Instead, the aggrieved party may choose to affirm the contract, thereby giving the party-in-breach another opportunity to rectify the non-performance or defective performance. If so, the entire contract is kept alive and the aggrieved party loses the right to have the contract discharged (although the right to sue the party-in-breach and recover money damages for any losses incurred as a result of the delay in procuring full performance may well be retained, unless the aggrieved party also elects to waive his or her right to compensatory money damages).
但受损方也可以选择不解除合同，反而是确认合同，就此给予违约方对不履约或不当履约作出补救的机会。若如此，则原合同继续存在，而受损方失去了解除合同的权利（尽管受损方起诉违约方和取得因延误全面履行招致的损害赔偿的权利仍被保留，除非受损方也选择了免追究金钱损害赔偿的权利）。
Anticipatory Repudiatory Breach预期毁约
16 A breach of contract may also occur anticipatorily (in advance of the time of actual performance). If this breach is also repudiatory (where the evidence demonstrates that one party intends not to be bound by the terms of the contract, nor to honour his or her contractual obligations as and when they fall due), the aggrieved party has the right to choose whether to discharge or to affirm the contract. `Repudiatory´ intentions will be more readily proved where there are clear and express communications by the purported party-in-breach to such effect. However, they can also be inferred from actions or steps taken by the purported party-in-breach which render it impossible for his or her obligations to be performed when they become due.
违约也可以预期发生（即发生在实际履行之前）。如果此类违约亦属毁约性质（如证据表明一方没有受合同条款约束的意旨，也不打算在合同义务到期时履行之），受损方有权选择解除或者确认合同。如果“毁约”意旨在意图毁约的当事人的声明中明确清楚地表示出来，就比较容易证明。但是毁约意图也可以从意图毁约方的行动或采取的措施中推定出来，如果该行为或措施已经使得该方不可能履行合同义务。
Effect of Discharge by Anticipatory Repudiatory Breach因预期毁约而解除合同的后果
17 Significantly, a party aggrieved by an anticipatory repudiatory breach may exercise his or her right to discharge the contract immediately without waiting until the time of actual performance. If the aggrieved party elects to discharge the contract, the contract is immediately and prospectively brought to an end. The aggrieved party is then entitled to sue the party-in-breach for damages as compensation for any loss suffered by the aggrieved party as a result of the non-performance of the contract.
一个很重大的后果是，预期毁约的受损方可以立即行使解除合同的选择权，而无须等到实际履行的时间。如果受损方选择解除合同，合同立即终止。受损方然后有权起诉违约方，追讨受损方因对方不履行合同而招致的的损失的赔偿。
Effect of Affirmation Following an Anticipatory Repudiatory Breach
预期毁约后确认合同的后果
18 On the other hand, the aggrieved party may elect to affirm the contract. If so, the contract continues to bind all parties to the contract and the anticipatory breach is ignored. Consequently, once the aggrieved party affirms the contract, there can be no liability for money damages for that anticipatory breach since it is treated as if the breach never occurred.
另一方面，受损方也可以确认合同。如果这样，合同继续约束各方，预期违约本身则被忽略。所以，一旦受损方确认合同，预期违约则不产生金钱赔偿之责任，因为它被视作从未发生过。
Introduction简介
9.1 If one or both parties enter into a contract under a misapprehension of its basis, or of an important aspect of the transaction, the contract may either be completely void, or voidable. In the latter case, the contract is valid until it is rescinded (or set aside) by the mistaken party. This distinction is critical for determining third party rights - seeParagraph 9.12 below. Whether a mistake has the effect of rendering a contract void or voidable depends on the manner in which the mistake arises.
如果一方或双方当时订立合同是基于对合同基础或者对交易一个重大方面的误解，则合同或者是完全无效，或者是可撤销的。如为可撤销情形，合同在被受误解影响一方撤销以前仍为有效。这个区别对确定第三方的权利至关重要。见下文第9.12节。一个误解是否能导致合同无效或可撤销要根据误解产生的情形来判断。
Mutual Mistake相互误解
9.2 If A contracts with B believing that he is purchasing X but B is in fact intending to sell Y to A, there is no contract between A and B because they have failed to reach any agreement on the subject matter of the contract. Mistakes of this nature are commonly referred to as `mutual mistakes´. A `contract´ entered into under a mutual mistake (relating to a fundamental aspect of the contract) is void.
如果A与B订立合同，A确信他是购买甲物，而B事实上是打算售乙物予B，则在A和B之间不存在合同，因为他们对合同的标的物没有达成协议。此种性质的误解一般称为“相互误解”。相互误解（关系到合同的一个根本方面）之下订立的合同为无效合同。
Common Mistake共同误解
9.3 A `common mistake´ arises when an agreement is reached on the basis of a mistaken assumption or belief shared by both parties. This occurs, for instance, when A contracts to sell a consignment of goods to B but unknown to both parties, the goods had been destroyed by the time the contract was formed. In this situation, owing to the destruction or non-existence of the subject matter, the contract may justifiably be regarded as invalid and void even though it is otherwise properly formed.
“共同误解”产生的情形是协议的达成是基于双方均有的误解假设或信念。比如，当A与B签订合同出售一票在途货物与B，为双方所均不知晓的是，货物在上述合同订立前已经被毁灭。这种情况下，鉴于标的物已经灭失或不存在，合同就可被正当地认为是无效的，尽管若非如此该合同原可以被恰当履行。
9.4 The more problematic situation arises when the common mistake relates to a less fundamental matter, such as the quality of a subject matter of the contract (as opposed to its existence). Here, the law has to strike an appropriate balance between doing justice to the party disadvantaged by the mistake and protecting the counter party´s legitimate expectation that the contractual bargain would be upheld. The common law and equity respond to this problem in different ways (on the distinction between common law and equitable rules, see [Chapters 1 and 18- Singapore Legal System and Trusts]).
更为成问题的情形是共同误解只是牵涉到不是很基本的事项，例如合同标的物的质量（而不是其存在与否）。在这里，法律不得不在给因误解而陷入不利境况的当事人带来正义和保护相对方的对合同得到恰当履行的合法期待之间维持一个恰当的平衡。普通法与衡平法对这个问题提供了不同的解决方式。关于普通法与衡平规则的区别，见第一章合第十八章关于新加坡法律制度/信托。
Common Mistake at Common Law普通法上的共同误解
9.5 At common law, precedence is given to upholding bargains. Thus, a common mistake as to quality would not, generally, render a contract void unless the mistake has the effect of rendering the subject matter of the contract essentially and radically different from what the parties believed it to be. The ambit of the common law doctrine is therefore extremely narrow, having little application outside cases involving non-existent or destroyed subject matter.
普通法上的先例是对谈称的成交条件倾向予以肯定。故此，关于质量的共同误解一般不会使合同无效，除非误解使得合同的标的物本质上和重大地不同于当事人当初所认为的标的物。见Bell v Lever Brothers Ltd [1932] AC 61。因此普通法理论在这方面非常狭隘，在超出标的物不存在或灭失的情形之外很少适用。
Common Mistake in Equity衡平法上的误解
9.6 Equity, in comparison, permits a more liberal approach: even if a mistake is not sufficiently fundamental to render a contract void at common law, it may still be set aside provided that the mistake is sufficiently serious.
比较而言，衡平法的进路更为自由：即使一个误解尚不能充分具有根本的性质而使合同在普通法上无效，但只要误解足够严重，衡平法也允许使合同因此得以终止。见Solle v Butcher [1950] 1 KB 671。
9.7 Distinguishing between the different degrees of `fundamental´ mistakes that are operative at common law and in equity is a difficult task. Nevertheless, the Singapore Court of Appeal´s recent observations appear to favour the retention of this two-prong approach (Chwee Kin Keong v Digilandmall.com Pte Ltd [2005] 1 SLR 502). This may be contrasted with the position in England, where the more flexible equitable rule appears to have been abolished (Great Peace Shipping Ltd v Tsavliris Salvage (International) Ltd [2003] QB 679).
对分别在普通法和衡平法上的“根本误解”的不同程度加以区分是一件很难的任务。虽然如此，新加坡的上诉法庭（Court of Appeals）最近的一些判例观点仍然坚持维持这个二元模式。见Chwee Kin Keong v Digilandmall.com Pte Ltd [2005] 1 SLR 502。这与英国法现在的立场已有显著不同，因为在英国衡平法规则已被废除。见Great Peace Shipping Ltd v Tsavliris Salvage (International) Ltd [2003] QB 679。
Unilateral Mistake单方误解
9.8 A contract may also be affected by a `unilateral mistake´, that is when only one party is acting under a mistake. For purposes of discussion, it is convenient to distinguish between the following two cases: (a) where the mistake relates to the identity of a contracting party, and (b) those where the mistake relates to a term of the contract.
合同也可能被“单方误解”影响。为研讨方便之目的，应对以下两类情形加以区分：（a）误解涉及到合同一方的身份；及（b）误解涉及到合同条款。
Unilateral Mistake as to Identity关于身份的单方误解
9.9 First, unilateral mistakes as to identity typically involve cases where one party´s consent to an agreement is procured by deception. If A agrees to sell his car to B (who has deceived A into believing that B is C), the contract is affected by A´s unilateral mistake as to B´s true identity provided that it is clear that B´s identity is material, ie an important factor which induced the contract. As between A and B, it is not essential to determine whether such a mistake renders the contract void or voidable, since A, the mistaken party, would have the right to set aside the contract in either case. However, the distinction becomes critical if B has sold the car to T (an innocent third party who acquires the car without notice of B´s deception ) before A discovers the fraud. If the mistake has the effect of rendering the contract between A and B void, A will be able to recover the car from T because B, not having acquired any property right in the car, has nothing to sell to T. In the converse situation where the contract between A and B is merely voidable, B would have acquired property rights in the car, which he could subsequently transfer to T. A is therefore unable to recover against T in this instance.
首先，关于身份识别的单方误解通常涉及到一方的对协议的同意是被欺骗所引致的。如A同意把他的车卖给B（而B实际上是通过欺骗使A认为B就是C），如情形很清楚B的身份事关重大（例如是诱使合同成立的重要因素），则A关于B的真实身份的单方误解会影响合同。在A和B之间，确定误解是合同无效还是可撤销并不关键，因为在任何一种情况下，A，作为有误解认知的一方，都有权使合同归于终止。然而，如果B在欺诈被揭示之前已经把车卖给了T（T是不知B的欺诈行为的善意第三方），这个区别就很关键了。如果误解的效力是使得A和B之间的合同归于无效，A就能够从T手里去回车辆，这是因为B自己没有取得车辆的任何财产权，因而就没有什么东西能卖给T。如果情形只是A和B之间的合同是可撤销的，B已经获得了车辆的财产权，他可以随后将之转移给T，A也因此不能从T出取回车辆。
9.10 Disputes involving mistakes as to identity are invariably `hard´ cases that are not amenable to simple analyses because they often require the court to prefer one of two innocent parties. Nevertheless, it may be observed that the general approach in these cases requires examination of the facts to ascertain whether there is in fact an agreement between the mistaken party and the (fraudulent) counter party. Thus, if A intends to sell his car only to C, then no agreement is reached between A and B when B attempts to purchase the car by pretending to be C. Such intention may, for instance, be inferred from the fact that A´s offer is expressly addressed to C, or where there is a written contract purportedly made between A and C (although fraudulently signed by B on C´s behalf). However, where A and B transact face-to-face, there is a presumption that they intend to deal with the physical person present, in which case A is presumed to have intended to contract with B, the fraudster. Such a presumption may, however, be rebutted by clear evidence to the contrary.
关于身份识别的争端不可避免地属于艰难的案例，不是简单的分析所能言说的，这是因为这种争端通常需要法庭优待两个无辜方中的一方。尽管如此，可以认为解决此类案件的总的进路要求审视案件事实以确定在有误解认知的一方和实施了欺诈的另一方是否事实上存在一个协议。因此，如果A意图将他的车卖给C，那么当B试图假扮C而购得该车时，在A和B之间就没有协议。这种意图也可以-比如说-从A的要约是明示发给C的这一事实中，或者从从一个本意是成立于A和B之间的书面合同（而B欺诈性地代C签了名）推定出来。然而，当A和B做面对面的交易时，就存在一个假定，即他们意图与出现在现场的人交易，在这种情形下A被推定为有意图与欺诈者B订立合同。但是这个假定可以被清楚的相反证据所推翻。
Unilateral Mistake as to a Term关于条款的单边误解
9.11 Secondly, there is the category of unilateral mistakes as to terms of the contract. If A enters into a contract under a misapprehension as to a particular important term (other than the identity of the other party, B), and the mistake is known to B, such a mistake may render the contract void at common law. The Singapore Court of Appeal has recently clarified (in Chwee Kin Keong v Digilandmall.com Pte Ltd [2005] 1 SLR 502) that this common law doctrine is confined to cases where the non-mistaken party, B, has actual knowledge of A´s mistake. In addition, if a case does not fall within the ambit of the common law doctrine (because, for instance, it has not been established that B has actual knowledge of A´s mistake), the court may nevertheless exercise its equitable power to set the contract aside if B is guilty of unconscionable conduct. This may arise where B suspects that A is labouring under a mistake but consciously omits to disabuse A of his error.
第二类是关于条款的单边误解。如果A基于对某个重要条款（并非另一方当事人B的身份）的误解，而B知晓此项误解，在普通法上该误解可以使合同归于无效。新加坡上诉法院最近澄清，上述普通法原则只适用于B（作为无误解认识的一方）实际上知晓A有了误解的情形。此外在某个案件不属于上述普通法涵盖的范围的情况下（比如因为不能证明B实际上知晓A有误解），如果B卷入显失公平行为，法庭可以行使它在衡平法上的权力解除合同。见Chwee Kin Keong v Digilandmall.com Pte Ltd [2005] 1 SLR 502。这种情形可产生于B相信A正在产生误解但却有意不去纠正A的误解。
Documents Mistakenly Signed因误解而签字的文件
9.12 Generally, a person of full age and understanding who has signed a written contract is bound by it even if he or she has not read it. Exceptionally, a signatory to a contract may be able to set it aside if it is fundamentally or radically different from what the signatory believed it to be, as may occur if the signatory´s understanding is limited by some innate incapacity, or when he or she has been tricked into signing it. This defence cannot, however, be invoked by a person who has been negligent in signing the document.
总的来说，如果一方在书面合同上签名他就受其约束，即使他/她并没有读过合同。例外情形下，如果合同从根本上和极大地区别于签字人当初所确信的合同内容，比如签字人的理解被某些固有的能力不足所局限，或者他/她因被设陷阱而签字等，签字人可以将合同终止。这一抗辩不能被因疏忽而签约的人所援引。
Documents Mistakenly Recorded因误解而记载的文件
9.13 If a written contract does not, by reason of a mistake, accurately record the agreement between the parties, the court may rectify the contract so as to give effect to the parties´ true intention. Originally, the remedy of rectification was only available in cases where the mistake is shared by both parties, but was subsequently extended to situations where only one party is mistaken, and such mistake is known to the other party.
如果书面合同由于误解的原因没有准确记载当事方达成的协议，法庭可以修正合同以给与当事人的真实意图以法律效力。最初，司法修正这一救济措施只适用于双方都有误解的情形，但后来它被延伸到只有单方有误解且误解已被另一方知晓的情形。
SECTION 10 MISREPRESENTATION虚假陈述
Representation陈述
10.1 A contract which is induced by a misrepresentation may be set aside, and may give rise to an action for damages. A misrepresentation occurs when one party to a contract makes a false statement of fact to the other contracting party which induces the latter to enter into the contract. To be operative, the false representation must relate to a past or present fact. It follows that a vague or exaggerated statement that is in the nature of a `puff´ does not suffice. Generally, a statement of a party´s intention or opinion is also not a sufficient ground for relief. However, if the representor does not honestly hold such intention or opinion, there is a misrepresentation of fact as to the representor´s state of mind. A statement of opinion may also be actionable if it is made by a person who professes to have special skill or knowledge in the matter stated. Statements of law appear still to be excluded from the ambit of operative representations, although the correctness of this position must now be doubted in light of the abolition of this distinction in the context of mistakes (see [Chapter 19 on Restitution - Mistaken Payments]).
因被虚假陈述引诱而订立的合同可被结束，并可导致损害赔偿之诉。为发生效能，假的陈述必须是关于一个过去或现在的事实。因此一个含糊的或夸张性的陈述属于言过其实的吹嘘，不足以成为虚假陈述。一般来讲，因为一项对一方意图或意见的陈述也不足以寻求法律救济的理由。然而，如果陈述者没有诚实地持有此种意图或想法，可以说这是对他的心理状态这一事实的虚假陈述。对于意见的陈述如果是由一个自称具有某一事项的专业技能或知识的人作出，该陈述即可引起控诉。对法律的表述仍被排除在可发生虚假陈述效能的陈述之外。对此能否作出更正，尚是个值得怀疑的问题，特别是鉴于在误解的情形下这两者之间的区别已被废除。
10.2 A representation may be express, or it may be inferred from the representor´s conduct. On its own, silence or non-disclosure does not usually constitute a representation. There are, however, exceptions to this general rule. If a party makes a positive but incomplete disclosure, the omitted disclosure may amount to a misrepresentation if it has the effect of distorting the truth of the information disclosed. Similarly, a failure to correct an earlier (and continuing) representation that was true at the time it was made but which has subsequently become incorrect is actionable. A failure to disclose material facts whilst negotiating contracts uberrimae fidei, such as insurance contracts, would also give rise to an action for misrepresentation.
陈述可以明示作出，或可从陈述人的行为中推定出来。陈述或者不批露本身通常不构成陈述，对对此也有例外。如一方作出了积极的但又不完全的披露，被遗漏的信息如果对已披露的信息能造成扭曲，就构成虚假陈述。相似地，在其先前作出时尚为准确的（持续）陈述如果后来变得不正确，对其不作出更正就可能引致控诉。如果是协商一些“最大诚信”(uberrimae fidei) 合同如保险合同，失于披露重大事实就会引致虚假陈述之诉。
10.3 Generally, a misrepresentation must also be material, in the sense that it relates to a matter which would influence a reasonable person´s decision whether to enter into the contract. If a representation is ambiguous and may be interpreted in two (or more) ways, of which one is true and the other false, it is not a misrepresentation unless the representor has intended it to be understood in the sense that is false.
总的来说，虚假陈述也必须是重大的，这意味着它涉及到一个能够影响一个通情达理的人决定是否签订合同的的事项。一果一项陈述含糊不清，可作两种（或多种）解释，但只有一种解释是真实的而其他的都是虚假的，它就不是虚假陈述，除非陈述者意图使其被理解为虚假的那种含义。
Inducement引诱
10.4 Misrepresentation is a ground for relief only where it has induced a contract. Clearly, if a person is unaware of the representation, or knows that it is untrue, or does not believe it to be true, he or she cannot reasonably have relied on, or be induced by, the representation to enter into the contract. Reliance may also be negated if the representee has independently verified the truth of the representation, although the failure to verify (when the opportunity to do so is available) is not in itself a bar to relief. If the misrepresentation has in fact induced the representee to enter into the contract, it does not matter that it is not the sole inducing factor. The persons who may rely on a representation are not confined to those directly addressed by the representor, but include any person whom the representor intends to reach and influence, even if such a person learns of the representation indirectly from a third party.
如果虚假陈述诱使了合同的成立，它就可以成为寻求法律救济的理由。清楚的是，如果某人不知悉该陈述，或者知道它不是真实的，或者不相信它是真实的，他或她就不能合理地信赖该陈述或被其引诱而订立合同。如果被陈述人已经独立验证过陈述的真实性，这种信赖也可被否定，尽管（在有机会时）疏于验证本身并不是寻求救济的障碍。如果虚假陈述确实诱使被陈述人订立合同，它是否是唯一的诱导因素就不重要了。信赖陈述的人并不限于陈述人的直接表述对象，还包括任何陈述人意图致达和影响的人，即使该人是通过第三人间接地获知陈述。
Rescission解除合同
10.5 Once it is established that a contract has been induced by a misrepresentation (whether innocent, negligent or fraudulent), the party induced may elect to rescind (ie set it aside) or affirm it. The effect of rescission is to release the parties from their contractual obligations, and to restore the parties to their respective positions prior to the making of the contract. The right to rescind will, however, be lost if: (a) the induced party has affirmed the contract; (b) innocent third parties have acquired (for value) rights in the subject matter of the contract; (c) it is no longer possible to restore the parties to their respective prior positions; and (d) (except in the case of fraud) an inordinate period of time has lapsed. It should also be noted that the court may, pursuant to s 2(2) of the Misrepresentation Act (Cap 390, 1994 Rev Ed), award damages in substitution for the right to rescind.
一旦证明合同是因虚假陈述诱导而成立（不管是无辜、过失还是欺诈），被诱导的一方可以选择解除或确认合同。解除合同的后果是当事各方不再受合同义务约束，并使各方恢复到合同订立以前的各自原状。但是下列情况下解除合同的权利不再存在：（a）被诱导的一方已经确认了合同；（b）无辜的第三方已经（付出对价）取得了对合同标的的权利；（c）已经不可能使当事各方恢复原状；以及（d）（除欺诈情况外）过于长的一段时间已经过去。还应该提到法庭可以根据《虚假陈述法》（Cap390, 1994修订）第2（2）条判决以损害赔偿代替解除合同。
Damages for Fraudulent Misrepresentation欺诈性虚假陈述的损害赔偿
10.6 Whether damages may be awarded for misrepresentation depends on whether the misrepresentation is fraudulent, negligent or innocent. At common law, damages may be awarded for fraudulent misrepresentations. A fraudulent misrepresentation is a false representation that is made: (1) knowingly, (2) without belief in its truth, or (3) recklessly, careless whether it be true or false. In such a case, the representor would have committed the tort of deceit and the representee is permitted to recover for all losses incurred as a consequence of the fraudulent misrepresentation, even for losses which might not have been reasonably foreseeable.
是否能够给与损害赔偿要看虚假陈述的性质是欺诈性的(fraudulent)，过失性的(negligent) 还是无辜性的(innocent)。在普通法上，因欺诈性陈述可被判令损害赔偿。虚假陈述的“虚假”因素表现为：“（1）蓄意地，（2）不相信其是真实的，或者（3）罔顾后果地或粗心大意地不在意其是真是假。”见Derry v Peek (1889) 14 App Cas 337, 374。这种情况下，陈述人即犯下欺骗性侵权行为，被陈述人被允许追回因为欺诈陈述所招致的各种损失，即使损失并非可以合理地预见到。
Common Law Damages for Negligent Misrepresentation过失虚假陈述的普通法损害赔偿
10.7 Where an operative misrepresentation results from negligence, the party who has relied on it may obtain damages by commencing an action in the tort of negligence. This requires proof that there is a `special relationship´ between the parties which places the representor under a duty to take reasonable care in furnishing information or advice to the representee, and that the representor has failed to do so. A more extensive survey of the legal principles relating to this branch of the law is contained in [See Chapter 20 on Tort - Negligence]. Recovery in such a case would, however, be restricted to losses which are reasonably foreseeable.
如发生功效的虚假陈述属于过失引起，信赖它行事的一方可以通过提起侵权过失之诉而获得损害赔偿。这需要证明当事方之间有一种“特殊关系”，陈述人因之有责任尽到合理注意以给被陈述人提供信息或建议，但他却没能那样做。（关于这个领域的法律原则的更深入的讨论见下文第二十章“过失侵权法”。）然而这种情形下追偿的范围限于合理预见到的损失。
Statutory Damages for Negligent Misrepresentation过失虚假陈述的成文法赔偿
10.8 Alternatively, a party who has contracted in reliance on a negligent misrepresentation may claim damages under 2(1) of the Misrepresentation Act (Cap 390, 1994 Rev Ed). In fact, where the issue arises as between contracting parties, this statutory action is generally the preferred route for recovering damages as its requirements are less onerous than those of the common law (tortious) action outlined in Paragraph 10.7 above. Under s 2(1), the claimant only has to establish that he or she has contracted in reliance on the other party´s misrepresentation, whereupon the latter has the onus of proving that he or she was not negligent in that he or she had reasonable ground for believing in the truth of the statement. In contrast, the claimant in a tortious action bears the burden of proof of all elements of the action, including the existence of a special relationship between the parties, as well as the other party´s negligence. The language of the provision suggests that the measure of damages under s 2(1) should be the same as that for fraudulent misrepresentations, which is more liberal than the measure which applies in contract cases [see Paragraph 13.10 below] or in cases based on the tort of negligence [see Paragraph 10.7 above]. As a matter of principle, however, the contract measure appears to be the more appropriate option.
作为另一种选择，因信赖过失性虚假陈述而订立合同一方也可以根据《虚假陈述法》第2(1)条提起损害赔偿。实际上，当事人之间存在此种争议时，总的来说依据成文法起诉以获得损害赔偿是一条更愿意选择的路径，这是因为它的基本要求比普通法上的侵权之诉（见上文10.7）要容易达到。根据第2（1）条，索赔人只要证明他本着对另一方的虚假陈述的信赖而订立合同，而后者则有责任证明他没有过失责任是因为他也有合理理由相信声明是真实的。与之相对照，侵权之诉的索赔人有责任为诉讼的所有因素举证，包括当事人之间的特殊关系，以及另一方的过失。本条奇特的立法语言表明，第2（1）条下的赔偿措施应与欺诈性虚假陈述的措施相同，这比合同纠纷中的 [见下文13.11 ]和过失侵权的[见前文10.7]赔偿措施更为宽松。然而从原则上讲，合同措施更为适当。
Innocent Misrepresentations无辜的陈述
10.9 Misrepresentations may also be made innocently. In such a case, the claimant is not entitled to damages at common law, but where the claimant still has the right to rescind (and it appears beneficial to do so), the claimant may persuade the court to exercise its discretion under s 2(2) of the Misrepresentation Act to award damages in lieu of rescission. If the court is not so persuaded and the contract is rescinded, the claimant may be compensated for expenses incurred in performing the contract in the form of an `indemnity´.
虚假陈述也可系无辜作出的。此种情形下，索赔人无权获得普通法上的损害赔偿，但当索赔人仍有权解除合同时（如果这样做有益的话），他可以说服法庭行使它在《虚假陈述法》地2（2）条下的自由裁量权，以判令损害赔偿来代替解除合同。
Misrepresentations and Terms虚假陈述与合同条款
10.10 Misrepresentations are usually pre-contractual statements made to induce a person to contract with the representor. A pre-contractual statement which has induced a contract may also have been incorporated as a term of the contract. If so, the person who made the statement would now also be in breach of the contract if the statement turns out to be false. In such an event, damages for breach of contract may be claimed, and s 1 of the Misrepresentation Act makes it clear that the representee may still rescind the contract for misrepresentation. For the test for distinguishing between terms and representations, see Paragraph 5.1.
虚假陈述通常是一些引诱某人与陈述人订立合同的先合同声明。诱导合同成立的先合同声明也可以被纳入为合同的一个条款。这样，如果声明是虚假的，作出声明的人现在也违反了合同。这种情况下，可以提起违约之诉。《虚假陈述法》也清楚申明被陈述人可以因虚假陈述而解除合同。关于条款和陈述的区别，见前文5.1.
Excluding Liability For Misrepresentation排出虚假陈述的责任
10.11 Parties to a contract may agree to contractual terms which exclude or limit their liability for misrepresentation, but s 3 of the Misrepresentation Act requires such a term to satisfy the test of reasonableness set out in s 11(1) of the Unfair Contract Terms Act (Cap 396, 1994 Rev Ed). This test has been discussed inParagraph 5.14 above.
合同的各当事方可以同意以合同条款排除或限制他们的虚假陈述责任，但是《虚假陈述法》第3条要求此项条款符合《不公平合同交款法》第11（1）条规定的合理性标准。此标准在前文5.14已讨论过。
SECTION 11 DURESS, UNDUE INFLUENCE & UNCONSCIONABILITY
胁迫，不当影响及显失公平
Duress胁迫
11.1 If A enters into a contract with B as a result of B´s coercion (often taking the form of threats of unlawful acts), the contract may be set aside by A on the ground of duress. The types of unlawful or improper pressure that may have this effect include actual or threatened harm to a person, a person´s goods or his or her economic interests.
如果A与B订立合同是出于B的强迫（表现为非法威胁），A可以以胁迫为由废止合同。有此类效果的非法的或不恰当的压力包括对一个人的人身、货物或经济利益的实际的或威胁的伤害。
11.2 The recognition that economic duress can suffice as a ground for avoiding a contract is a relatively recent development, justified by the concern to prevent a party with strong bargaining power from exploiting the weaker position of the counter party. However, it is not the case that economic duress arises whenever a contract is entered into between parties of unequal bargaining strength. The law recognises that a measure of commercial pressure is inherent in every transaction between such parties, and inequality in bargaining power is a well-accepted (and perhaps necessary) facet of modern commercial life. A plea of economic duress will therefore only succeed in the exceptional case, where a party has used his or her superior bargaining position a way that is illegitimate.
经济胁迫被认可为使合同无效的一个理由是合同法相当新的发展，其根据是防止据于强势谈判地位的一方已用另一方的不利地位。但并不是说只要合同是在两个谈判实力不相等的人中间就会有经济胁迫。法律承认当事人间的每一个交易中都会内在地存在某种商业压力，而谈判力量不平等是现代商业生活中广泛接受（且也许是必然）的现象，因此对经济胁迫的主张只有在一方以非法方式利用其优越谈判地位例外情形中才会胜出。
11.3 That said, the line between illegitimate pressure and mere commercial (and legitimate) pressure is extremely fine, and where it falls is often dependent on the particular facts of the case. In general, the reasonableness of the parties´ respective conduct appears to be an important consideration. For instance, a party who threatens to breach a contract with another if the latter does not agree to its request for increased payments is not exerting illegitimate pressure if, owing to acute financial conditions, that is the only course available to him. However, where the dominant party makes the same demand for no reason other than an opportunistic desire to exploit the counter party´s vulnerability for financial gain, such conduct is less likely to be viewed favourably.
尽管如此，非法压力和纯粹的商业压力的界限是极端细微的，常常有赖于个案的事实。总体上，当事人各自行为的合理性是个重要考虑。例如，一方威胁说如果另一方不增加价款自己就要违反合同的行为不构成施加非法压力，如果根据他的艰难财力状况，这是他唯一可以求助的方式。但是，如果据于支配地位的一方提出了同样要求且其原因不过是想投机性地利用另一方的不利地位谋取利益，这类行为不大可能会被看好。
Undue Influence不当影响
11.4 The doctrine of undue influence guards against the victimisation of persons by those who exercise dominance or influence over them. The pressure so exerted is generally less direct and acute than that which occurs in cases involving duress. Traditionally, cases involving undue influence fall into two main categories.
不当影响理论保护那些因能支配或影响他们的人而受害的人。与胁迫相比，这一类的影响总的来说比较不直接不严重。传统上，不当影响的情形可以分为两类。
Actual Undue Influence实际的不当影响
11.5 Under the first category, a contract may be set aside if one utilises one´s dominant position over another to procure the latter´s consent to the contract. The victim has the burden of proving that the guilty party so dominates the victim´s will as to substantially undermine the victim´s independence of mind. It is, however, unnecessary to establish that such dominance arises out of a special relationship between the parties, nor that the resulting transaction is manifestly unfair to the victim.
第一类的情况是，如果一方利用自己对另一方的支配地位取得了对方对订立合同的同意，这个合同可以被终止。受害者需证明有过错的那方对受害者的意愿有支配性影响以致能实质上削弱受害者的独立意志。但是没有必要证明这种支配是出于一种特殊关系，或者该交易对受害者来说明显地不公平。
Presumed Undue Influence假定的不当影响
11.6 The second category is concerned with situations where, in the absence of proof of actual undue influence, a presumption that one party has acted under the undue influence of another arises. The effect of the presumption is to shift the burden to the defendant to prove that no undue influence has been exercised. The presumption arises in two situations. First, it arises automatically, as a matter of law, from the proof of the existence of certain relationships that are characterized by strong elements of confidence and influence. These include parent-child, guardian-ward, trustee-beneficiary, doctor-patient, lawyer-client, director-company, and religious adviser-disciple relationships. Secondly, although the parties´ relationship does not fall into the first-mentioned group, the presumption may nevertheless arise if the claimant is able to establish that he or she has in fact reposed trust and confidence on the other party. It is, however, unsettled as to whether the claimant would also have to establish that the transaction is one which is manifestly disadvantageous.
第二类涉及的是，如无证据证明实际的不当影响，假定一方受到另一方不当影响的情况。假定的目的是为了转移不当影响的举证责任。两种情况下假定成立：第一，如能证明当事人之间存在着很强的信任与影响关系，则假定在法律上自动成立。这些包括（非穷尽性地），父母-子女，监护人-被监护人，受托人-受益人，医生-病人，律师-客户，董事-公司，以及宗教上的导师-信徒等关系。第二，即使当事人的关系不属于上述类型，如果请求人能够证明它实际上对另一方寄以信任和信赖，假定也可成立。但是请求人是否亦需要证明交易明显对他不利，这是个法律上尚未解决的问题（试比较Kushvinder Singh Chopra v Mooka Pillai Rajagopal [1996] 2 SLR 379 与Standard Chartered Bank v Uniden Systems (S) Pte Ltd [2003] 2 SLR 385两个判例）。
Rebutting the Presumption对假定之反驳
11.7 The presumption may be rebutted by showing that the dominant party did not abuse his or her position and that the subservient party understood what he or she was doing and was in a position to exercise a free judgment based on full information. Generally, it would suffice to demonstrate that the subservient party had the opportunity to receive independent legal advice prior to making the contract.
支配方可以反驳假定，方式是示明他没有滥用其地位，或者受其支配的一方知道该方自己的行为，也处于拥有充分信息能够自由判断的地位。一般讲，这只需证明受支配方在订立合同之前曾有机会接受独立的法律咨询。
Third Parties第三方
11.8 If A improperly influences B to contract with C (usually for the benefit of A), B may seek to set aside the contract on the ground of undue influence if it can be shown either (a) that A was acting as the agent of C; or that (b) C had either actual or constructive notice of A´s misconduct. If the transaction is one which is, on its face, disadvantageous to B, and C knows of reasons why B could have reposed trust and confidence in A (where, for instance, B is A´s wife), then C would be fixed with constructive notice of the improper influence, unless C has taken reasonable steps to ensure that B´s consent was in fact obtained independently. This will entail, at the very least, explaining the transaction to B in a private meeting, and advising her to seek independent legal advice.
如果A不适当地施加影响使B与C订立合同（通常是为了A的利益），如能证明下列情形，B可以寻求终止合同：（a）A是作为C的代理行事；或（b）C对A的不端行为实际知情或者推定知情。如果这项交易在表面上对B不利，而C知悉B对A寄以信任和信赖的原因（比如B是A的妻子），则C对A的不当影响推定知情，除非C曾采取合理措施保证B的同意是独立作出的。这要求B至少在私下场合向B解释过此桩交易并且建议B寻求独立的法律意见。
Effects of Duress and Undue Influence胁迫和不当影响的效果
11.9 Contracts that are procured by duress, undue influence or unconscionable conduct are voidable. In each case, the improper conduct must be a significant or decisive cause of the victim´s consent. This right to rescind may, however, be lost in certain circumstances (see Paragraph 10.5 above).
通过胁迫、不当影响、或者违背良心的行为订立的合同为可撤销的合同。在上述任何一种情况下，不端行为必须足够重大或者是使受害人作出同意的决定性原因。然而在某些情况下撤销权也会消灭。见前文10.5。
Unconscionable Bargains违背良心的合同
11.10 Apart from instances involving duress or undue influence, equity may also relieve parties from `unconscionable bargains´. Such bargains typically involve the exploitation of one party´s weakness, though the mere fact that the parties are of unequal bargaining power does not suffice. The exact ambit of this jurisdiction is unclear, but it has traditionally been applied narrowly to cases involving expectant heirs and improvident transactions.
胁迫或不当影响之外，衡平法也为当事方提供“违背良心的合同”的救济。一种典型例子是一方利用另一方的弱点，但是双方的谈判地位不平等尚不足以成为根据。这一理论的范围尚不是很清楚，但传统上它只是被狭窄地适用于期待继承人（expectant heirs）和大肆浪费的交易(improvident transactions)这些情形。
SECTION 12 ILLEGALITY AND PUBLIC POLICY非法性与公共政策
Statutory Illegality成文法上的非法性
12.1 A contract may be said to be `illegal´ in a number of different contexts. For example, there may be a statutory prohibition as to the formation of contracts which would entail carrying out certain socially undesirable activities.
在若干情形下一个合同可被称之为“非法”。例如，成文法可能禁止那些涉及到不良社会后果的合同成立。
12.2 In such cases, the statute may clearly provide that the `illegal´ contract is void. That is to say, it is to be treated in law as if it had never been formed. If the statutory wording is clear, there is no need to go any further to ascertain the intention of the legislature as to the status of the contract.
这种情形之下，成文法可能清楚规定“非法”合同是无效合同。这即是说，它被法律认为自始不成立。如果成文法的语言清楚，则没有必要进一步确定立法者关于合同地位的意图。见Turquand, Young & Co v Yat Yuen Hong Co Ltd [1967]1 MLJ 291 at 292。
12.3 Difficulties arise, however, where the statutory wording is unclear, particularly where the statute in question does not clearly specify whether its object is to prohibit the formation of the contract, or the performance of the obligations under that contract. The true parliamentary intention underlying the statutory prohibition will have to be ascertained. In the former case, the contract is void.
当立法语言不够清楚时问题就有点困难了，特别是当有关的成文法没有明确规定其目的到底是禁止合同成立，还是合同义务的履行。对此要确定议会在立法的禁止性规范的之下的真实意图。如果意图是前者，合同无效。
Illegality at Common Law普通法上的非法性
12.4 At common law, certain strands of public policy prohibit the formation of certain types of contract.
在普通法上，某些公共政策禁止一些合同的成立。
12.5 Such contracts are completely void and examples include: (a) contracts prejudicial to the administration of justice - these include contracts to stifle prosecution, or contracts savouring of maintenance (where one person supports another in bringing or resisting an action - as by paying the costs of it - which is permissible only if the party providing the support has a legitimate and genuine interest in the result of the action and the circumstances are such as reasonably to warrant such support) or champerty (which is a species of maintenance where the maintainer seeks to make a profit out of another man's action - by taking the proceeds of it, or part of them, for himself or herself); (b) contracts to deceive public authorities; (c) contracts to oust the jurisdiction of courts (although contracts or agreements to arbitrate, or agreements to confer exclusive jurisdiction over a dispute in favour of a foreign court are not caught by this prohibition); (d) contracts to commit a crime, tort or fraud; (e) contracts prejudicial to public safety; and (f) contracts promoting sexual immorality.
这类合同完全无效。如下合同为例：（a）合同妨害司法行政–这包括阻碍司法检控的合同，或者具有挑唆词讼（maintenance）或者助颂图利（champerty）的合同。前者是指某人支持他人提起或对抗诉讼–例如承担诉讼费用，但如果支持者对诉讼的结果有真实的合法的利益而且在当时情形下这种支持是合理的，支持就是被许可的。后者是挑唆词讼的一种，指支持诉讼者试图从他人的诉讼中谋利, 如为自己拿走诉讼的全部或部分赔款等；（b）欺骗政府机构的合同；(c) 逃避法院管辖权的合同（但是仲裁合同或协议以及授予非新加坡法院排他性管辖权的协议并不在禁止之列）；（d）约定犯罪、侵权或欺诈的合同；（e）妨害公共安全的合同；以及（f）关于不道德性关系的合同。
Effect of Statutory Illegality or Illegality at Common Law
成文法上的非法性与普通法上的非法性的后果
12.6 Where a contract is rendered void by statute or common law, the general starting point is to treat the contract as if it had never existed. Any outstanding or unperformed obligations under that contract are extinguished. In other words, in so far as enforcement of such outstanding obligations would have required reliance on the illegal contract, no judicial enforcement is possible. Judicial enforcement may still be available, notwithstanding the illegality, if it is possible to do so without referring to the illegal contract, ie by relying on an independent and separate cause of action.
如果合同依成文法或普通法无效，则一般是将它视作自始不存在。合同项下任何现存的或未履行的义务均告消灭。换言之，如执行现存合同义务要基于该非法合同，则司法强制执行不为可能。但是，如果司法强制执行可以无须依据非法合同而进行（例如可以依据一个独立的和分立的案由，则尽管存在合同的非法性，仍然可以进行司法强制执行。
12.7 Conversely, the question arises whether any recovery may be had for benefits which have been conferred under an illegal contract. On one view, such benefits will have been conferred without any basis. It may well be that, in some cases, some form of recovery pursuant to the law of unjust enrichment is possible. This is very likely to be allowed in instances where one party repents of the illegal contract and withdraws from it before the illegal purpose of the contract is fulfilled. If such repentance is genuine, voluntary and timely, before any part of the illegal purpose has been carried out, restitutionary recovery pursuant to the principles of unjust enrichment is likely to be allowed [see Chapter 19 on Unjust Enrichment].
有个问题是非法合同项下获得的利益能否予以追回。关于这个问题一方面的意见是，此类利益之授予没有任何基础。在某些情况下，按照不当得利法律进行某种形式的追偿是可能的。如一方在合同的非法目的实现前对非法合同行为悔悟，这种情形下不当得利就可能得当适用。如悔悟在合同的任何非法目的被实现前真诚、自觉、及时地发生，按照不当得利原则进行恢复原状返还财产即可能被允许。见第十九章关于不当得利。
Contracts in Restraint of Trade限制商业的合同
12.8 A contract which is wholly in restraint of trade is contrary to public policy and is illegal at common law. Such a contract is void. Leeway, however, is given in light of the fact that, in some contexts, some restraint of trade may well protect legitimate interests.
整体上限制商业的合同有悖公共政策，在普通法上是非法的。此类合同整体无效。但某些情形下亦允许有例外，如果此类限制有助于保护合法利益。
12.9 For example, a `reasonable´ restraint of trade clause which seeks to protect: (a) the interests of the parties concerned; (b) and the interests of the public will not be void. Both these aspects of reasonableness must be established.
例如，一项“合理的”限制商业的条款可以是为了寻求保护：（a）有关当事方的利益；（b）以及公共利益，这类合同不被认定无效。上述两方面的合理性都要予以证明。见Thomas Cowan & Co Ltd v Orme [1961] MLJ 41。
12.10 This determination will vary from case to case, but significant factors will include the geographic scope as well as the length of time for which the restraint of trade is to apply. The wider and longer the restraint, the more difficult it will be to prove that the restraint is reasonable.
确定合理性要依个案判断，重要的因素包括商业限制适用的地理范围和时间跨度等。限制的宽度与广度越大，越难证明限制的合理与正当性.
Severance分离
12.11 Sometimes, illegality might taint only part of a contract, eg, attempts to restrain competition from ex-employees. Such restraints of trade are often incorporated as a covenant or term in an otherwise unobjectionable employment or service contract.
有时候只是合同的一部分具有非法性，比如包括试图限制前雇员竞争的条款。此种商业限制常常作为一项保证或者条款包括在雇用合同中，如无此项条款此类合同不会被反对。
12.12 If the restraint of trade covenant is found to be unreasonable, and hence void, the `illegal´ covenant will be severed from the rest of the contract, maintaining the contract´s validity if the severed covenant does not form the whole or the main consideration for the contract. If the severed covenant does form the whole or the main consideration for the contract, no severance will take place and the entire contract is void.
如限制商业条款被认定为不合理而因此与法无据和无效，“非法”的保证将从合同的其他部分分离开来。如被分离的条款不构成全部或主要的合同对价，合同的效力仍维持。如果待被分离的保证确实构成合同的全部的或主要的对价，分离即不应该进行，而合同也整体无效。
12.13 Severance may also take effect in a more limited form within the confines of a particular covenant or term. This more limited form of severance is akin to taking a `blue-pencil´ to strike out those words which would render the covenant `unreasonable.´ In doing so, however, the court will not go so far as to re-write the contractual bargain which had been reached by the contracting parties.
分离也可以在一个特定的保证或条款之内以更有限的形式进行，这如同用一只“蓝铅笔”划掉那些导致整个保证条款“不合理”的词句。在如此理案的时候，法庭也不会走得太远以至于重写当事人之间议定的合同。
SECTION 13 JUDICIAL REMEDIES FOR BREACH OF CONTRACT违约的司法救济
Judicial Remedies Contrasted with Self-help Remedies司法救济与自力救济
13.1 Following a breach of a condition of a contract, or where the breach causes one party to be deprived of substantially the whole of the benefit of the contract, the aggrieved party may elect to bring the contract to an end. When this happens, both the aggrieved party and the party-in-breach will be released from any outstanding obligations under the contract. This is said to be a `self-help´ remedy because the release is effected without the need for any court approval or intervention.
违反合同的条件（conditions）条款之后，或违约实质上整体剥夺了另一方在合同项下的利益，受损方可以选择终止合同。如此，则受损方和违约方都不再受现有合同义务约束。这被称之为“自力救济”，因为合同义务的解除是当事人自己达成，未经过任何法庭批准或介入。
13.2 Where the aggrieved party has suffered financial losses as a result of the breach, or where release of the party-in-breach from outstanding obligations will cause financial loss, discharge of contract alone may not be an adequate remedy. Recourse to other judicial remedies may be needed.
如受损方因对方违约而遭受财务损失，或者解除违约方的现存义务会引起财务损失，那么合同解除本身尚不足以成为救济，而需要求助于司法救济。
Types of Judicial Remedies 司法救济的种类
13.3 In relation to contract law, the following types of judicial remedy are commonly sought: (a) the common law remedy of damages; (b) the common law remedy of an action for a fixed sum; (c) the equitable remedy of specific performance; and (d) the equitable remedy of injunction. It is important to draw the distinction between the common law and the equitable remedies because, while the former are available as of right, the latter are discretionary.
合同法相关的司法救济手段通常包括以下几种：（a）普通法上的损害赔偿救济；（b）普通法上请求支付固定数目违约金之诉；（c）衡平法上的实际履行救济；以及（d）衡平法上的禁令救济。在普通法和衡平法上的救济之间划清界限很重要，因为前者属于当事人有权获得，后者则依赖法庭的自由裁量。
Availability of Judicial Remedies - Time bars, Limitation Periods and Laches
司法救济之可获得性–时间与时效限制
13.4 Urgency should be the order of the day when seeking judicial remedies as access to judicial remedies may be barred by lapse of time.
寻求司法救济要尽快紧急进行，因为司法救济可能因为时间的流逝而不再可得。
13.5 Generally speaking, no action may be brought for a breach of contract after 6 years have lapsed from the time when the contract was breached - s 6 of the Limitation Act (Cap 163, 1996 Rev Ed). This bars access to the court insofar as the remedies of damages or an action for a fixed sum are concerned. [See Chapter 2 on Court Procedure for a fuller discussion].
总的来说，违约六年以后不得再提起诉讼。见《诉讼时效法》（Cap 163, 1996年修订）第6条。这限制了向法庭提起支付固定数目之诉。见第二章关于法庭程序的详细讨论。
13.6 In relation to the equitable remedies of specific performance and injunction, the equitable doctrine of laches applies. Shortly put, applicants who delay applying for equitable relief from the courts may be turned away if the delay is inordinate and inexcusable, such that it would be inequitable to grant such relief. Indeed, an application for an order for specific performance might be denied if the application is not made as soon as the nature of the case might permit.
至于实际履行和禁令的衡平法救济手段，要使用衡平法上的行权懈怠理论。简言之，申请人申请衡平法救济如果迟延，就会被拒绝，如果迟延如此过分和不可原谅以至于授予此种救济将不再公平的话。的确，对实际履行救济的申请，如果在情形显现的时候没有尽快进行，将会被法庭拒绝。见Tay Joo Sing v Ku Yu Sang [1994] 3 SLR 719 at 730。
Damages - Compensation for Pecuniary Loss损害赔偿- 金钱损失的赔补
13.7 Contractual damages are awarded to an aggrieved party in the form of a sum of money, in compensation for any pecuniary losses which have been incurred as a result of the breach of contract.
合同损害赔偿以一定数量金钱的方式判给受损方，以赔补其因为对方违约而遭受的任何金钱损失。
Compensation Only仅供赔偿
13.8 In general, damages are compensatory in nature. It remains an open question whether, in the appropriate case, damages might be awarded for breach of contract on any other basis.
一般来讲，损害赔偿只是赔偿性质的。在恰当的案情中，损害赔偿能否以其他理由授予，这还是个待定的问题。
Liquidated Compared with Unliquidated Damages约定与未约定的损害赔偿
13.9 In some cases, compensation for losses resulting from breach may have been pre-agreed by the contracting parties as a term of the contract. If the agreed sum is a genuine pre-estimate of the loss which could be suffered as a result of a breach of the contract, the court will order that sum to be paid in compensation as liquidated damages. However, if the sum is intended to be a penalty aimed at `punishing´ the party-in-breach, the court will strike down the `penalty´ clause and award unliquidated damages instead to compensate the aggrieved party.
在某型情形中，当事人可能已经事先通过合同条款约定损失的赔偿。如果约定的数额是对违约后损失的真实的事先估算，法庭会将之作为约定的违约金予以支持。但如果这个数额是意图作为对违约方的“惩罚”，法庭会撤消惩罚条款，代之以赔补受损人损失的未约定损害赔偿。
Quantification and Measure of Unliquidated Damages未约定损害赔偿的数量化与方式
13.10 The court will usually quantify unliquidated damages so as to place the aggrieved party, as far as money can do so, in the position he or she would have been had the contract been performed fully instead of being breached. Therefore, if the aggrieved party would have expected to make a profit by resale of goods which had been purchased from the party-in-breach, but where such profit falls away because of non-delivery and breach, the aggrieved party´s expectation loss in the form of the loss of profit may be recovered. Alternatively, where the aggrieved party has to incur additional costs, over and above what was expected under the contract by reason of having to pay for a replacement supply of goods or services following the failure by the party-in-breach to perform his or her contractual obligations, those additional expenses may be recovered by the aggrieved party in compensation as a form of expectation loss. As a further alternative, an aggrieved party may choose to quantify his or her damages on the basis of expenses which were incurred in reliance on the other party performing his or her contractual obligations, instead of on an expectation basis (unless it is demonstrated that the aggrieved party had made a bad bargain and the reliance expenditure would have exceeded any expected gain).
法庭通常会将未约定的损害赔偿数量化，以在金钱赔偿能做到的范围内，使受损方达到如果合同能够被完全履行（而不是被违反）后他应处的位置。因此，如果受损方本应该从转售从违约方处买来的货物中获得利润，但由于未交付货物或其他违约行为，该项利润不可获得或减少，受损方可以获赔期待损失（表现为利润损失）。作为选择，如果由于违约方的疏于履行合同义务，受损方不得不付出高于合同项下的期待成本的多余成本以购买替代货物或服务，这些多余成本可以以期待损失的方式获得补偿。作为更多的选择，受损方可以选择以对另一方履行合同义务的信赖作为根据将其损失数量化，而不是以期待为根据（除非能证明受损方只是做了一个很蠢的协商，从而信赖损失要远远高于期待利益）。
Time of Quantification数量化的时间
13.11 In most instances, unliquidated damages will be assessed as at the time of the breach although, in appropriate cases, the court may take into account events occurring after the breach.
在大多数情况下，未约定损害赔偿应于违约之时为准来估算，但是在适当情形下，法庭也会考虑违约后发生的事件。
Restrictions on Recovery of Unliquidated Damages对追索未约定赔偿的限制
13.12 It is not the case, however, that unliquidated damages are available for all losses. Recovery is subject to certain restrictions.
但未约定损害赔偿并非对所有损失都适用。追索受到多种限制
Non-pecuniary Loss非金钱损失
13.13 First, non-pecuniary losses (ie for hurt feelings, disappointment, mental distress, and so forth), are generally not compensable except in certain limited circumstances - for example, where the contractual obligation itself related to non-pecuniary matters, as in the case of a contract for a package holiday.
首先，非金钱损失（如感情伤害、失望、精神痛苦等）一般不能获得赔偿，除非在某些限定的情况下，如合同义务本身事关非金钱事项，如一切由旅游社代办的固定费用假日旅游等。
Remoteness of Loss损失的遥远性
13.14 Second, losses which are too remote are not compensable. Losses which arise in the usual course of things as a result of the breach are not too remote, and are compensable. Losses which are out of the ordinary and which would not ordinarily have been in the contemplation of either party to the contract are not - unless the party-in-breach knew or ought to have known about the possibility of such unusual losses.
第二，过于遥远的损失不能获赔偿。在这方面新加坡法律采取了判例Hadley v Baxendale (1854) 9 Ex 341中的立场。因此，因损失所发生的正常过程中的损失都不算遥远，因而可以得到补偿。非正常的-从而也不在任何当事人订立合同时的考量范围之内的–损失不被赔付，除非违约方知道或者应当知道这种不正常损失的可能性。
Mitigation of Loss减损
13.15 Third, losses which the aggrieved party could have taken reasonable steps to avoid, but did not, are not compensable. This is to encourage mitigation of losses, that is, steps by the aggrieved party to reduce his or her losses. The duty is to take all reasonable steps to minimise one´s loss. If, in taking objectively reasonable steps to mitigate, the aggrieved party incurs greater loss than if no steps been taken at all, such increased losses will still be recoverable from the party-in-breach.
第三，当事人本来可以采取合理措施避免却没有这样做而导致的损失不被赔付。这是为了鼓励受损方采取减损（mitigation）措施减少他的损失。“减损责任”并不是说要求受损方采取所有措施减少损失。如果受损方采取客观上合理的措施减损但却因此而招致了更大的损失，增加的损失仍可从违约方处追索。
Action for a Fixed Sum固定数目款项之诉
13.16 Damages, whether liquidated or unliquidated, are not the only remedy at common law. Where the contractual breach relates solely to an obligation to pay a fixed sum of money, damages are not available as a remedy. Instead of damages, the court will order that the fixed sum, due and owing, be paid.
无论是约定的还是未约定的损害赔偿都不是普通法上的唯一可得的救济。当规定的违约赔偿只是一笔固定数目的款项，损害赔偿则不得为救济。取代损害赔偿的是法庭会判令义务方支付该笔固定的数目。
13.17 In such cases, generally, there will be no damages for the delay in payment, apart from any court ordered interest on the judgment sum, or any contractual interest (if the contract expressly provides for the payment of interest on any delayed payment of the sum owed).
这种情况下，延迟付款没有损害赔偿，只有法庭判决款项数目的利益，或者合同规定的利率（如合同明确规定对延迟付款应支付的利息）。
Specific Performance实际履行
13.18 Sometimes, damages will not be an adequate remedy for a breach of contract. This may be the case where the breach involves delivery of property which is unique (such as a piece of land). In such instances, the aggrieved party may make an application for the court to make an order of specific performance - ie an order to the party-in-breach (or threatening to be in breach) to perform in accordance with the terms of his or her contractual promise.
有些时候，损害赔偿不足以成为违约的充足救济。比如违约牵涉的是交付特定财产的义务（例如某处土地），这种情形下，受损方可以申请法庭裁令实际履行–比如裁令违约方（或威胁违约方）按照其合同许诺履行实际义务。
13.19 Specific performance is, however, not available as against the Singapore Government in any civil proceedings to which the state is a party - see s 27(1)(a) of the Government Proceedings Act (Cap 121, 1985 Rev Ed).
在国家是一方当事人的任何诉讼中，实际履行不得被用于新加坡政府。见《政府程序法》（Cap 121，1985修订）。
Limits on Availability of Specific Performance对实际履行的限制
13.20 Specific performance is a discretionary remedy. It may be withheld if, in all the circumstances of the case, it would be inequitable to make such an order. As has been mentioned above, substantial delay in applying for such relief may be enough to cause the court to withhold such relief. Relief may also be withheld if the applicant does not come to court with `clean hands´. The order for specific performance may also be made on terms, so as to balance the interests of the parties to the dispute.
实际履行是法院自由裁量的救济。如果根据案件的全部实际情形，采取此种措施不公平，法庭就不会裁令实际履行。如上所述，如过于迟延申请此种救济，且如果当事人自己也并非没有责任，法庭就会拒绝判令此种措施。见判例Chuah Eng Khong v Malayan Banking Bhd [1997] 3 MLJ 173 at 186-7。法庭的实际履行裁令有时候也会有条件授予，以保持争议各方权利义务的平衡。见Ng Lay Choo Marion v Lok Lai Oi [1995] 3 SLR 221。
13.21 Specific performance might also be refused in a number of other instances, most notably where: (a) the proposed order would require constant supervision by the court; (b) the court is not able to specify the terms of the order which is to be complied with; (c) the proposed order would require the performance of something which is impossible to achieve; and (d) the order relates to a contract of personal service because such an order could amount to judicial compulsion of involuntary servitude.
其他情形下实际履行也可能被拒绝，如：（a）如果履行令需要法庭持续的监督；（b）法庭不能够明确履行令的条款；（c）履行令要求履行一些不可能实现的事情：以及（d）合同涉及到人身服务性质的义务，因为这样做如同司法强制劳役。
Injunction禁止令
13.22 Not all contractual obligations are susceptible to orders of specific performance. Sometimes, the contractual obligation in question is a negative one, where the party-in-breach fails to honour his or her promise not to do something. In such circumstances, an application for a prohibitory injunction may be made by the aggrieved party.
并非所有的合同义务都适于实际履行。有时候，合同义务是个消极义务，而违约方违反了不作为的义务。此种情形下，受损方可以向法庭申请禁止令。
13.23 In the absence of factors such as those mentioned above in Paragraph 13.20, prohibitory injunctions are likely to be granted unless: (a) the remedy would be inequitable or oppressive; or (b) the balance of convenience does not favour making such an order.
如上文13.21提到的各项因素不存在，即可发布禁止令，除非：（a）此项救济不公平或过于暴虐–见Jaggard v Sawyer [1995] 1 WLR 269；或者（b）发布此救济确实不符合方便易行的要求 – 见Rajaram v Ganesh t/a Golden Harvest Trading Corp [1995] 1 SLR 159。
13.24 If the breach of the negative obligation lies wholly in the past, the aggrieved party may seek a mandatory injunction instead. Such an order requires the party-in-breach to reverse the effects of the breach so as to restore the aggrieved party to the position he or she would have been, had the negative obligation not been breached.
如果违反消极义务系完全在过去发生，受损方可以选择申请强制禁止令（mandatory injunction）。此种命令要求违约方采取措施推翻违约行为的后果，使受损方还原到如消极义务未被违反他本应该处于的地位。
13.25 The discretion whether to issue a mandatory injunction is also generally subject to the `balance of convenience´ test.
是否授予强制禁止令也要遵行“方便易行”(balance of convenience) 的原则。
13.26 In general, injunctions will also be refused in relation to contracts of personal service - where the practical effect of the proposed injunction would be to compel the performance of a contract for personal service for which no order of specific performance would have been made in the first place.
总的来说，对涉及到人身服务性质的合同，禁止令申请也会被拒绝，如果此类禁令会强迫履行人身服务合同，而即便任何实际履行命令也不会有此效果。
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